Part 51 (1/2)
483), his _eious and social theory as to education then prevailing throughout western Europe For the stiff and unnatural methods in education, under which children were dressed and made to behave as adults, [3] the harsh discipline of the tiious instruction and book education, he preached the substitution of life amid nature, childish ways and sports, parental love, and an education that considered the instincts and natural develop up the political and social ideas of his age as to ecclesiastical and political despotism; the nature of the social contract; that the ”state of nature” was the ideal one, and the one in which men had been intended to live; that human duty called for a return to the ”state of nature,” whatever that e in --Rousseau restated his political philosophy in tererations, , and many imperfections, the book had a tre bare the limitations and defects and abuses of the formal and ecclesiastical education of the tiarded as the first important writer to sap the foundations of the old systeious education, and to lay a basis for a new type of child training (R 254) Though Rousseau's enthusiasm took the form of theory run ely impossible, he nevertheless popularized education, not only in France, but aressive European States as well After he had written, the old liious education was on the defensive, and, though time was required, the transition to a more secular type of education was inevitable as fast as nations and peoples could shake off the dominance of the Church in state affairs
[Illustration: FIG 155 LA CHALOTAIS (1701-83)]
2 _La Chalotais_ The year following the publication of Rousseau's _emile_ appeared La Chalotais's _Essai d'education nationale_ (1763) Rene de la Chalotais, a Solicitor-General for the Parliane, was one of the notable French parliahteenth century Unlike Rousseau's highly ierated, sentimental, and paradoxical volume, La Chalotais produced a practical and philosophical discussion of the proble firmly that education was essentially a civil affair; that it was the function of govern them for their sphere in society; that citizen and secular teachers should not be excluded for celibates; [5] that the real purpose of education should be to prepare citizens for France; that the poor were deserving of education; and that ”the e” in the struggles of a modern world, La Chalotais produced a hich armly approved by such political philosophers as Voltaire, Diderot, and Turgot, and which was translated into several European languages (R 255) Though far less widely read than Rousseau's _e subsequent political theory and action regarding the relations of education to the State Nearly every proposal for educational legislation during the days of the Revolution went back in idea to this philosophic discussion of the question by La Chalotais and to the practical proposals of Rolland and Turgot
[Illustration: FIG 156 ROLLAND (1734-93)]
3 _Rolland_ In 1768 Rolland, president of the Parliaues a report in which he outlined a national system of education to replace both the schools of the Jesuits and those of the Brothers of the Christian Schools La Chalotais had proposed a more modern system of state schools chiefly to replace those of the Jesuits, but Rolland went further and proposed the extension of education to all, and the supervision of all schools by a central council of the Government
By means of a centralized control, a central university to which the other universities of France were to be subordinate, a higher nores (secondary schools), and universal education, [6] Rolland hoped to develop for France a national spirit, a national character, and a national govern the youth of the provinces into harot_ In 1774 Turgot was appointed Minister of Finance (p 481), and in 1775 hein which he set forth ideas analogous to those of Rolland, and presented an eloquent plea for the formation of a national council of public instruction and the establishment of a system of civil and national education for the whole of France In closing he wrote:
Your kingdo any obstacle to the instructions whose object is higher, and which already have their rules and their expounders, I think I can propose to you nothing of iven to all your subjects an instruction which shows theations they owe to society and to your power to protect the those duties for the public good and their own This moral and social instruction requires books expressly prepared, by coreat care, and a school with the art of writing, reading, counting, , and the principles of ht to be the foundation of all the other studies There are eometricians, physicists, and painters, but there are none for training citizens
5 _Diderot_ In 1776 Diderot, editor with D'Alembert of the _Encyclopaedia_ (1751-72), prepared, at the request of Catherine II (p
477), under the title of _Plan of a University_, a coanization of a state systeh the plan was never carried out, it was printed andfrom one of the most influential Frenchmen of his time He commends as an exaanization of popular instruction For Russia he outlines first a systeatory for all, and in which instruction in reading, writing, arithht ”Froood for every one to kno to read, write, and count” For the series of secondary schools to be established, he conde so much of the instruction to the hues instead the introduction of instruction in matheovernments Classical studies he would confine to the last years of the course Science, history, drawing, and music find a place in his scheme
All this instruction Diderot would place under the supervisory control of an administrative bureau to be known as the _University of Russia_, at the head of which should be a statesman, who should exercise control of all the work of public instruction beneath Though never carried out in Russia, the University of France of 1808 is largely an embodiment of the ideas he proposed in 1776
LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS TO EMBODY THESE IDEAS During the quarter of a century between the publication of Rousseau's _e of the States-General to reform France (1762-88), the educational as well as the political ideas of the French refor classes of the nation The _cahiers_ of 1789, of all Orders (p
500), gave evidence of this in their soeneral demand for the creation of some form of an educational system for France (R 252) Froical literature became plentiful, and the successive National asseanization of France, constitution-, and the darkening cloud of foreign intervention, to listen to reports and addresses on education and to enact a bill for the organization of a national school system The more important of these educational efforts were:
1 _The Constituent assembly_ (June 17, 1789, to September 30, 1791) In the Constituent assembly, into which the States-General resolved itself, June 17, 1789, and which continued until after it had framed the constitution of 1791, two notable addresses and one notable report on the organization of education were ainst his class and elected to the States-General as a representative of the Third Estate,Body” and on the ”Organization of a National _Lycee_” In the first he advocated the establishhout France
In the second he proposed the establishes of literature in each departher (university) education, and to contain the essentials of a national nore as well
[Illustration: FIG 157 COUNT DE MIRABEAU (1749-91)]
[Illustration: FIG 158 TALLEYRAND (1758-1838)]
Mirabeau's proposals represent rather a transition in thinking from the old to the new, but the Report of Talleyrand (1791), former Bishop of Autun, now turned revolutionist, embodies the full culht Public instruction he tera fetes of the Nation” He definitely proposed the organization of a complete state system of public instruction for France, to consist of a primary school in every canton (community, district), open to the children of peasants and workmen--classes heretofore unprovided with education; a secondary school in every department (county); a series of special schools in the chief French cities, to prepare for the professions; and a National Institute, or University, to be located at Paris Inspired by Montesquieu's principle that ”the laws of education ought to be relative to the principles of governive effect to the provisions of the Constitution of 1791 relating to education (p 501), and to provide an education for the people of France ere now to exercise, through elected representatives, the legislative power for France Instruction he held to be the necessary counterpoise of liberty, and every citizen was to be taught to know, obey, love, and protect the new constitution Political, social, and personal ion in the cantonal schools, which were to be free and equally open to all As the Constituent asseislative assembly within three weeks after Talleyrand submitted his Report, no action was taken on his bill
[Illustration: FIG 159 CONDORCET (1743-94)]
2 _The Legislative assembly_ (October 1, 1791, to Septeislative body was far more radical in character than its predecessor, and far more radical than was the senti other acts it abolished (1792) the old universities and confiscated (1793) their property to the State To it was submitted (April 20-21, 1792) by the mathematician, philosopher, and revolutionist, Marquis de Condorcet, [7] on behalf of the Committee on Public Instruction and as a measure of reconstruction, a Report and draft of a Law for the organization of a complete democratic system of public instruction for France (R 256) It provided for the organizing of a primary school for every four hundred inhabitants, in which each individual was ”to be taught to direct his own conduct and to enjoy the plenitude of his own rights,”
and where principles would be taught, calculated to ”insure the perpetuation of liberty and equality” The bill also provided, for the first tiher pries (secondary schools) in the chief cities (one for every four thousand inhabitants); a higher school for each ”depart, at nine places in France; and a National Society of Sciences and Arts to crown the educational system at Paris The national system of education he proposed was to be equally open to wohout Teachers for each grade of school were to be prepared in the school next above Sunday lectures for workingiven by teachers everywhere Public ress, and the preservation of liberty and equality were the aims of the instruction The necessity for education in a constitutional government he saw clearly ”A free constitution,” he writes, ”which should not be correspondent to the universal instruction of citizens, would coenerate into one of those fornorant and corrupt people” Anarchy or despotism he held to be the future for peoples who becohtened He held it to be a fundamental principle that:
The order of nature includes no distinctions in society beyond those of education and wealth To establish a citizens an equality in fact, and to realize the equality confirht to be the primary object of national instruction
The bill proposed by Condorcet, while too ahly sound as a democratic theory of education, and an accurate prediction of what the nineteenth century brought generally into existence Condorcet's Report was discussed, but not acted upon
[Illustration: FIG 160 THE INStitUTE OF FRANCE Founded by Article 298 of the Constitution of Year III (1793)]
3 _The National Convention_ (September 21, 1792, to October 26, 1795)
The Convention was also a radical body, deeply interested in the creation of a systeher education there was for a tih later in its history the Convention erected a nuher technical institutions and schools, a the most important of which was the Institute of France
There was also in the Convention marked opposition to all forms of clerical control of schools The schools of the Brothers of the Christian Schools were suppressed by it, in 1792, and all secular and endowed schools and colleges were abolished and their property confiscated, in 1793 The complete supremacy of the State in all educational matters was now asserted Great enthusiasanization of state primary schools, which were ordered established in 1793 (R 258 a), and in these:
Children of all classes were to receive that first education, physical, moral, and intellectual, the best adapted to develop in them republican manners, patriotism, and the love of labor, and to render them worthy of liberty and equality
The course of instruction was to include: ”to speak, read, and write correctly the French language; the geography of France; the rights and duties of men and citizens; [8] the first notions of natural and familiar objects; the use of nuhts and measures, the mechanical powers, and the measurement of time They are to be taken into the fields and the workshops where theyon, and take part in the sae froious schools just preceding this period!
[Illustration: FIG 161 LAKanal (1762-1845)]