Part 33 (1/2)

Their synods made liberal appropriations for the universities, while es and elementary education They emphasized, in the lower schools, the study of the vernacular and arithes Greek and the New Testa list of famous teachers found in their universities reveals the character of their instruction Foster has well suuenot education in France, before they were driven fronificant characteristics of Huguenot education were: an e for ”the republic”

and ”society” as well as for the Church; insistence upon virtue as well as knowledge; the wide-spread demand for education, and a view of it as essential to liberty of conscience; a coiate, and university training for all, poor as well as rich; an astonishi+ng fa the lowest classes; utilization of representative church organization for founding, supporting, and unifying education; readiness to sacrifice for education, a spirit of carrying a thing through at any cost; business-like supervision of money, and systematic supervision of both professors and students; a notable emphasis on vernacular, arithmetic, Greek, use of full texts, and libraries; and finally a progressive spirit of inquiry and investigation

In the Palatinate (seechurches and schools was , and the universities of Heidelberg and Marburg beca In the Dutch Netherlands, and in that part of the Belgian Netherlands inhabited by the Walloons, Calvinist ideas as to education doen (f 1614), Amsterdam (f

1630), and Utrecht (f 1636) were Calvinistic, and closely in touch with the Calvinists and Huguenots of Ger these people as it was in Calvinistic France and Geneva The Church Synod of The Hague (1586) ordered the establishment of schools in the cities, and in 1618 the Great Synod held at Dort (R 176) ordered that:

Schools in which the young shall be properly instructed in piety and fundamentals of Christian doctrine shall be instituted not only in cities, but also in towns and country places where heretofore none have existed

The Christian istracy shall be requested that honorable stipends be provided for teachers, and that well-qualified persons may be employed and enabled to devote themselves to that function; and especially that the children of the poor ratuitously instructed by them and not be excluded from the benefits of schools

[Illustration: FIG 99 A DUTCH VILLAGE SCHOOL (After a painting by Adrian Ostade, dated 1662, now in the Louvre, at Paris)]

Further provisions wereof schoolmasters, and the pastors were made superintendents of the schools, to visit, exae, advise, and report (R 176) Provision for the free education of the poor became common, and elementary education was made accessible to all The careful provision for education made by the province of Utrecht (1590, 1612) (R 178) was typical of Dutch activity The province of Drenthe ordered (1630) a school tax paid for all children over seven, whether attending school or not The province of Overyssel levied (1666) a school tax for all children froen constituted the pastors the attendance officers to see that the children got to school Amsterdam and many other Dutch cities de licensed to teach By the ood systeenerally [5] by the Dutch and the Belgian Walloons (R

178) That the teaching of religion was the main function of the Dutch elementary schools, as of all other vernacular schools of the time, is seen from the official lists of the textbooks used (R 178)

John Knox, the leader of the Scottish Reformation (1560), who had spent some time at Geneva and as deeply iious-state found there, introduced the Calvinistic religious and educational ideas into Scotland His _Book of Discipline for the Scottish Church_ (1560), framed closely on the Genevan model, contained a chapter devoted to education in which he proposed:

That everie severall churche have a school-maister appointed, such a one as is able at least to teach Gra, yf the Town be of any reputation Yf it be upalandthen must either the Reider or the Minister take cayre over the childrento instruct them in their first rudementie and especially in the catechisme

[Illustration: FIG 100 JOHN KNOX (1505?-72)]

The educational plan proposed by Knox would have called for a large expenditure of money, and this the thrifty Scotch were not ready for Knox and his followers then proposed to endow the new schools from the old church and monastic foundations, but the Scottish nobles hoped to share in these, as had the English nobility under Henry VIII, and Knox's plan was not approved This delayed the establishment of a real national system of education for Scotland until the nineteenth century The new Church, however, took over the superintendence of education in Scotland, and when parish schools were finally established by decree of the Privy Council, in 1616, and by the legislation of 1633 and 1646 (R 179), the Church was given an iement These schools, while not always sufficient in nuht, and have deeply influenced the national character

4 _The Counter-Reformation of the Catholics_

THE JESUIT ORDER The Protestant Revolt al, ium (see map, p 296)

Italy was scarcely disturbed at all, while in France, where of all these countries the reforress, nine tenths of the people reeneral way it may be stated that those parts of western Europe which had once forral part of the old Roman Empire remained loyal to the Roman Church, while those which had been the homes of the Germanic tribes revolted Now it naturally happened that the countries which res of the necessity for education as a means to personal salvation which the Lutherans and Calvinists felt There, too, the church systees reed The Church as an institution, though, learned froer ends, and soon set about using it [6]

After the Church Council of Trent (1545-63), where definite church reforurated what has since been called a counter-reformation, in an effort to hold lands which were still loyal and to win back lands which had been lost Besides refor the practices and outward lives of the church sourated a caanda In this last the chief reliance was upon a new and a very useful organization officially known as the ”Society of Jesus,” but more commonly called the ”Jesuit Order” This had been founded, in 1534, by a Spanish knight, pilgrinatius Loyola, and had been sanctioned as an Order of the Church by Pope Paul III, in 1540 It was organized along strictlyresponsible to its General, and he in turn alone to the Pope The quiet life of the cloister was abandoned for a life of open warfare under a military discipline The Jesuit was to live in the world, and all peculiarities of dress or rule which ht prove an obstacle to worldly success were suppressed The purposes of the Order were to combat heresy, to advance the interests of the Church, and to strengthen the authority of the Papacy Its motto was _Olory of God), and the means to be employed by it to accomplish these ends were the pulpit, the confessional, the iven the place of first i clearly that the real cause of the Reforlect, and vicious lives of so lect practiced by the Church, and that the chief difficulty was in the higher places of authority, it becaht and industrious lives themselves, and to try to reach and train those likely to be the future leaders in Church and State With the education of the masses of the people the Order was not concerned [7] Our interest lies only with the educational work of this Order, a work in which it was ree influence

[Illustration: FIG 101 IGNATIUS DE LOYOLA (1491-1556)]

GREAT SUCCESS OF THE ORDER The service of the Order to the Church in co in a small way, the Order, by 1600, had established two hundred colleges (Latin secondary schools), universities, and training seminaries; by 1640, 372; by 1706 (150 years after the death of its founder), 769; and by 1756, 728 In 1773, when the Order was for a time abolished, [8] after it had been driven out of a number of European countries because of the unscrupulous methods it adopted and the continual application of its doctrine that the end justifies the means, the Order had 22,589 es (secondary schools) and universities were etically carried on in northern France, Belgiuary Here was the great battle line, and here the Jesuits deeply entrenched themselves In these portions of Europe alone there were, in 1750, 217 colleges, 55 seminaries, 24 houses for novitiates, and 160 es They did le-handed, to roll back the tide of Protestantism which had advanced over half of western Europe, and to hold other countries true to the ancient faith

The colleges were usually large and well-supported institutions, with dorrounds The usual nuh soh as 2000 At their period of es and universities of the Order probably enrolled a total of 200,000 students Their graduates were proovernmental activity of the time As far as possible the pupils were a selected class to whom the Order offered free instruction The children of the nobility and gentry, and the brightest andyouths of the different lands were drawn into their schools The children of h quality of the instruction offered There they were given the best secondary-school education of the tie, the peculiar Jesuit staave his opinion as to the success of their instruction in the following sentence: ”As for the pedagogical part, the shortest rule would be, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for nothing better has been put in practice” (_De Augmentis_, VI, 4) [10]

SUCCESS OF THE JESUIT SCHOOLS Displaying a genius for organization worthy of Rome, Loyola and his followers absorbed the best educational ideas of the tiement and curriculum, and incorporated these into their educational plan Too practical to es, but with a keen eye for as best, they accepted the best and used it e of Guyenne, the colleges of Calvin, and Stur, they adopted the plan of class organization, with a teacher for each class From the Calvinists they obtained the idea of the careful supervision of instruction, which orked out in the Prefect of Studies for their colleges In their course of study they incorporated the Ciceronian ideal of the huious instruction as was provided by any of the reformers From the Italian court schools they took the idea of physical training The ement which they worked out was detailed, practical, and for their purposes excellent The reasons for their educational work gave them a clearly defined aianization, the lifetime of celibate service, and the opportunity to sort the carefully selectedto their ability for service in the different lines of the Order gave the force in Europe, and these hness unknown before and seldo why they were at work and what ends they should achieve, intolerant of opposition, intensely practical in all their work, and possessed of an indefatigable zeal in the accoeneral and northern continental Europe in particular a systeh degree of effectiveness, which, coious warfare and persecution, in ti institutions in the countries they were able to control

That their educational system, viewed from a modern liberal-education standpoint, equaled in effectiveness for liberal-education ends such institutions as the court schools of Vittorino da Feltre, Battista da Guarino, or other Italian humanistic educators of the Renaissance (p

267); the French and Swiss colleges of Calvin (p 331); Colet's school at Saint Paul's (p 275), and the better English grammar schools; or the schools of the Brethren of the Common Life in the Netherlands (p 271); would hardly be contended for to-day Such, though, was not their purpose

To proselyte for the Church rather than to liberalize--fro already--was their ultianized to suppress rather than to awaken more Protestant heresy The work of this Order was so successful, and for two centuries so doher education in Europe, that it will pay us to exaanization to seeill exaanization, theirof their teachers

JESUIT SCHOOL ORGANIZATION Each college was presided over by a _Rector_, as in effect the president of the institution, and a _Prefect of Studies_, as the superintendent of instruction Below these were the _Professors_ or teachers, the _House Prefect_, the official disciplinarian of the institution, known as the _Corrector_, the monitors, and the students There were two classes of students, interns and externs Their schools were divided into two courses The _studia inferiora_, or lower school, which covered the six years frohteen; and the _studia superiora_, which followed, and included the higher college and university courses, with philosophy and theology as the important subjects For the whole, there was a very carefully worked-out manual of instruction (R 180) known as the _Ratio Studiorue was supposed to have previously learned how to read Latin The first three years were given to learning Latin grammar and a little Greek In the fourth year Latin and Greek authors were begun, and in the fifth and sixth years a rhetorical study of the Latin authors was round as well, theused only by perh the e of all scholarly and political intercourse, and the cultivation of the style and speech of Cicero as the standard of purity and elegance, were the ends aiiven to the health and sports of the pupils, and special regard was paid tothis lower school of six years came the so-called philosophical course of three years (sometimes two) The study of the Latin classics and rhetoric was continued, and dialectics (logic) and soether covered about the sa (p 273), but was more formal in character and partook more of the nature of the later forht variations were allowed in places, to meet particular local needs, but this course of study reeography, and elementary mathematics and science were added to the lower schools, and advanced mathematics and science to the philosophical course In 1906 each Province of the Order was pere the _Ratio_ further, if necessary to adjust it better to local needs Above the philosophical course a course of four or six years in philosophy and theology prepared for the higher work of the Order, the four-year course for preaching and the six-year course for teaching

JESUIT SCHOOL METHODS The characteristic method of the schools was oral, with a consequent closeness of contact of teacher and pupils This closeness of contact and sympathy was further retained by the systeiven by the official Corrector of the institution Their method, like that of theand not a questioning ave the instruction; the pupils received it In the upper classes the teacher explained the general e; then the construction of each part; then gave the historical, geographical, and archaeological infore; then called attention to the rhetorical and poetical forms and rules; then compared the style with that of other writers; and finally drew theof the judghness, memory drills, and the disciplinary value of studies were foundation stones in the Jesuit's educational theory Repetition, they said, was the mother of memory Each day the work of the previous day was reviewed, and there were further reviews at the end of each week, month, and year