Part 6 (2/2)

45. We focus on fields of study for ease of interpretation. Fields of study are highly, although not perfectly, correlated with course concentrations described in the previous chapter.

46. John C. Smart and Paul D. Umbach, aFaculty and Academic Environments: Using Hollandas Theory to Explore Differences in How Faculty Structure Undergraduate Courses,a Journal of College Student Development 48 (2007): 183a”95; and Paul D. Umbach, aFaculty Cultures and College Teaching,a in The Scholars.h.i.+p of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: An Evidence-Based Perspective, ed. Raymond P. Perry and John C. Smart (New York: Springer, 2007), 263a”318.

47. John M. Braxton, Deborah Olsen, and Ada Simmons, aAffinity Disciplines and the Use of Principles of Good Practice for Undergraduate Education,a Research in Higher Education 39 (1998): 299a”318.

48. John L. Holland, Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments (Odessa, FL: Psychological a.s.sessment Resources, 1997).

49. Steven Brint, Allison M. Cantwell, and Robert A. Hanneman, aThe Two Cultures of Undergraduate Academic Engagement,a Research in Higher Education 49 (2008): 383a”402.

50. The correlation between the percentage of costs covered through grants / scholars.h.i.+ps and hours worked off campus is a”0.080, p < 0.01;=”” and=”” the=”” correlation=”” for=”” hours=”” worked=”” on=”” campus=”” is=”” 0.083,=”” p=””>< 0.01.=”” the=”” correlation=”” between=”” the=”” percentage=”” of=”” costs=”” covered=”” through=”” loans=”” and=”” hours=”” worked=”” off=”” campus=”” is=”” 0.053,=”” p=””>< 0.01,=”” and=”” the=”” correlation=”” for=”” hours=”” worked=”” on=”” campus=”” is=”” 0.050,=”” p=””><>

51. We find no statistically significant interactions between any of the academic and social activities in college and race / ethnicity. Recent studies that have reported acompensatory effectsa include Carini, Kuh and Klein, aStudent Engagement and Student Learninga; Kuh et al., What Matters to Student Success; and George D. Kuh et al., aUnmasking the Effects of Student Engagement on College Grades and Persistencea (paper presented at the annual meeting for the American Educational Research a.s.sociation, Chicago, April 9a”13, 2007).

52. For a review of issues related to this topic see Christopher Jencks and Meredith Phillips, eds., The Black-White Test Score Gap (Was.h.i.+ngton, DC: Brookings Inst.i.tution Press, 1998).

53. Signithia Fordham and John U. Ogbu, aBlack Studentas School Success: Coping with the aBurden of Acting White,aa Urban Review 18 (1986): 176a”206.

54. For some recent examples, see Karolyn Tyson, William Darity, and Domini Castellino, aItas Not aa Black Thinga: Understanding the Burden of Acting White and Other Dilemmas of High Achievement,a American Sociological Review 70 (2005): 582a”605; and James Ainsworth-Darnell and Douglas Downey, aa.s.sessing the Oppositional Culture for Racial / Ethnic Differences in School Performance,a American Sociological Review 63 (1998): 536a”53.

55. Ann Swidler, aCulture in Action: Symbols and Strategies,a American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 273a”86.

56. Douglas Downey, aBlack / White Differences in School Performance: The Oppositional Culture Explanation,a Annual Review of Sociology 34 (2008): 121.

57. Claude M. Steele, aA Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Ident.i.ty and Performance,a American Psychologist 52 (1997): 613a”29.

58. Claude M. Steele and Joshua Aronson, aStereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African-Americans,a Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (1995): 797a”811.

59. Charles et al., Taming the River, 173a”87.

60. See for example, Carey, A Matter of Degrees.

61. Top-performing inst.i.tutions include four with the highest gains in CLA scores, after adjusting for studentsa sociodemographic and high school characteristics as well as for academic preparation. Reported differences are statistically significant at p <>

62. Kuh et al., aAn Unshakeable Focus on Student Learning,a in Student Success in College.

63. For a review of research on learning communities, see Kathe Taylor, Learning Community Research and a.s.sessment: What We Know Now. National Learning Communities Project Monograph Series (Olympia: Was.h.i.+ngton Center for Improving the Quality of Undergraduate Education, 2003). Moreover, for a recent study examining the relations.h.i.+p between learning communities and self-reported gains in learning and intellectual development, see Gary R. Pike, aThe Effects of Residential Learning Communities and Traditional Residential Living Arrangements on Educational Gains During the First Year of College,a Journal of College Student Development 40 (1999): 269a”84.

64. George D. Kuh, aWhat We Are Learning About Student Engagement from NSSE,a Change 35 (2003): 24a”32; and National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE), Promoting Engagement for All Students: The Imperative to Look Within (Bloomington, IN: Center for Postsecondary Research, Indiana University Bloomington, 2008).

65. For this a.n.a.lysis, we include only inst.i.tutions with at least twenty-five students in the sample.

66. Correlation between 2007 CLA scores and college GPA is 0.35l, p <>

67. Students who report having both requirements report studying 2.29 hours more than those not having the requirements (p <>

68. This estimate is based on change in R2 between model 2 (including 2005 CLA score, background characteristics, and academic preparation) and model 4 (adding measures of studentsa college experiences and controlling for inst.i.tutions attended) in table A4.5.

69. This estimate is based on change in R2 between model 1 (including 2005 CLA score and background characteristics) and model 2 (adding academic preparation) in table A4.5.

70. If our sample were less socioeconomically advantaged, we might have observed more time dedicated to activities such as work, child-rearing, caring for siblings, etc. These time commitments are very distinct from socializing, but they nonetheless take students away from the focus on academics. Whether it is frivolity or necessity, students in higher education have many competing demands. And in this compet.i.tion, learning seems to often lose out.

71. Brint and Cantwell, aUndergraduate Time Use and Academic Outcomes,a 3.

72. As Jenny Stuber pointed out recently, this emerges largely from the middle-cla.s.s conception of schooling. Jenny Stuber, aCla.s.s, Culture, and the Partic.i.p.ation in the Collegiate Extra-Curriculum,a Sociological Forum 24 (2009): 877a”900.

Chapter 5.

1. Excerpt from an interview transcript of Lee S. Shulman in Declining by Degrees: Higher Education at Risk (New York: Public Broadcast System, 2005).

2. Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, Campus Life: Undergraduate Cultures from the End of the Eighteenth Century to the Present (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), 11.

3. The National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (Was.h.i.+ngton, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1983).

4. Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Cla.s.s Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994). For a critique of Herrnstein and Murray, see Claude Fischer et al., Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), and Richard Nisbett, Intelligence and How to Get It (New York: Norton, 2009).

5. Patrick Callan, Commentary on Measuring Up 2006 Report (San Jose, CA: The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education, 2006).

6. Arthur M. Hauptman and Young Kim, Cost, Commitment, and Attainment in Higher Education: An International Comparison (Boston: Jobs for the Future, 2009).

7. U.S. Department of Education, A Test of Leaders.h.i.+p: Charting the Future of U.S. Higher Education (Was.h.i.+ngton, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2006), vii.

8. Alan Wagner, Measuring Up Internationally: Developing Skills and Knowledge for the Global Knowledge Economy (San Jose, CA: National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education, 2006). On the federal governmentas recent decision to partic.i.p.ate in this project, see Doug Lederman, aMeasuring Student Learning, Globally,a Inside Higher Ed, January 28, 2010.

9. Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, The Race between Education and Technology (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008).

10. Richard Arum, Josipa Roksa, and Mich.e.l.le Budig, aThe Romance of College Attendance: Higher Education Stratification and Mate Selection,a Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 26 (2008): 107a”22.

11. Richard Arum, Judging School Discipline: The Crisis of Moral Authority (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 2.

12. Clifford Adelman, The Toolbox Revisited: Paths to Degree Completion From High School Through College (Was.h.i.+ngton, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2006), 5.

13. Ibid., 34.

14. Arum, Judging School Discipline.

15. Barbara Schneider and David Stevenson, The Ambitious Generation: Americaas Teenagers Motivated but Directionless (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999).

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