Part 4 (1/2)

62. U.S. Department of Education, A Test of Leaders.h.i.+p, 14.

63. The Council for Aid to Education is a national nonprofit organization based in New York City. It was originally established in 1952 by a group of corporate leaders including Alfred Sloan (General Motors), Frank Abrams (Exxon Corporation) and Irving S. Olds (U.S. Steel Corporation) as the Council for Financial Aid to Education to advance corporate support of higher education. When the CLA instrument was developed, the Council for Aid to Education was affiliated with the Rand Corporation (see /views/2007/02/08/benjamin.

67. Hersch, aGoing Naked,a 6.

68. Klein, Shavelson, and Benjamin, aSetting the Record Straight.a 69. Richard Shavelson, aThe Collegiate Learning a.s.sessment,a Ford Policy Forum 2008: Forum for the Future of Higher Education, 20, net.educause.edu/forum/fp08.asp.

70. Discussed in Shavelson, aThe Collegiate Learning a.s.sessment,a 20. Prompts reported in posted powerpoints of Richard Benjamin, wvhepc.org/resources/RogerPresentation(10.09.03)a.ppt.

71. Council for Aid to Education, Collegiate Learning a.s.sessment Common Scoring Rubric (New York: Council for Aid to Education, 2008).

72. Shavelson, aThe Collegiate Learning a.s.sessment,a 19.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid., 20.

75. U.S. Department of Education, A Test of Leaders.h.i.+p, 23.

76. Anne Grosso de Len, aThe Collegiate Learning a.s.sessment: A Tool for Measuring the Value Added of a Liberal Arts Education,a Carnegie Results, Fall 2007, 3.

77. James Traub, aNo Gr_du_te Left Behind,a New York Times Magazine: The College Issue, September 30, 2007, 106a”9.

78. Doug Lederman, aNo College Left Behind?a Inside Higher Ed, February 15, 2006, /news/2006/02/15/testing.

79. Ibid.

80. Ibid.

81. U.S. Department of Education, A Test of Leaders.h.i.+p, 23.

82. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Directorate for Education, Education Committee, Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) Governing Board, PISA for Higher Education (Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2006), 3.

83. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, aa.s.sessment of Higher Education Learning Outcomes (AHELO),a /2007/0409/p09s01-coop.html.

85. Jennifer Epstein, aQuestioning College-Wide a.s.sessments,a Inside Higher Ed, June 21, 2007, /news/2007/06/21/a.s.sessments.

86. Stephen Klein, Ou Lydia Liu, and James Sconing, Test Validity Study (TVS) Report, September 29, 2009, /news/2006/11/03/a.s.sess.

88. Paul Basken, aTest Touted as 2 Studies Question Its Value: Small Colleges Back Achievement Exam to Measure Accountability,a Chronicle of Higher Education, June 6, 2008, chronicle.com/article/Test-Touted-as-2-Studies/23503/.

89. Robert Frank and Phillip Cook, aItas a Winner Take All Market,a Was.h.i.+ngton Monthly, December 1, 1995.

90. For more information on the Wabash National Study of Liberal Arts Education, see pleting high school in 1992 (which is close to the 1989 cohort included in C&B) and entering four-year colleges and universities was 53 percent. An additional 11 percent of students from this high school cohort graduated within six years from a different four-year inst.i.tution than where they had started.

Chapter 2.

1. Michael Hout, aPolitics of Mobility,a in Generating Social Stratification, ed. Alan C. Kerckhoff (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), 301a”25. Although most of the expansion occurred in public two-year inst.i.tutions, four-year inst.i.tutions expanded as well. Enrollments in public four-year inst.i.tutions as a fraction of the college-age population doubled between 1962 and 1992.

2. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Digest of Education Statistics (Was.h.i.+ngton, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2008), tables 189 and 265.

3. James Rosenbaum, Beyond College for All: Career Paths for the Forgotten Half (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2001). Also, for increase in expectations over time, see John Reynolds et al., aHave Adolescents Become Too Ambitious? High School Seniorsa Educational and Occupational Plans, 1976 to 2000,a Social Problems 53 (2006): 186a”206.

4. NCES, Digest of Education Statistics, table 202. Moreover, this percentage underestimates the ultimate enrollment because more than one-third of college entrants today delay entry by at least one year. See National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Waiting to Attend College: Undergraduates Who Delay Their Postsecondary Enrollment, NCES 2005-152 (Was.h.i.+ngton, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2005).

5. Martin Trow, aReflections on the Transformation from Ma.s.s to Universal Higher Education,a Daedalus 99 (1970): 3a”4.

6. Forty-four percent of students who were cla.s.sified in government reports as marginally qualified or not qualified for college (based on their secondary school GPA, high school rank, test scores, and academic coursework), expected to finish college, and an additional 46 percent expected to attain at least some postsecondary education. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Access to Postsecondary Education for the 1992 High School Graduates, NCES 98-105 (Was.h.i.+ngton, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1997), 21a”34.

7. Rosenbaum, Beyond College for All, 59a”62.

8. Barbara Schneider and David Stevenson, The Ambitious Generation: Americaas Teenagers Motivated but Directionless (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 79a”85.

9. Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Path from the Late Teens through the Twenties (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 125a”26.

10. Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings, aStatement on International Education Week 2008,a munication by the time they graduate. A test such as the CLA which relies on open-ended prompts may face challenges of reliability, raising the possibility that some of the students showing no gains may actually be learning. However, questions of reliability are likely to pertain to the other half of the distribution as well, meaning that some of the students reporting gains may not actually be learning much.

16. Charles Blaich, aOverview of Findings from the First Year of the Wabash National Study of Liberal Arts Educationa (Wabash College, Center for Inquiry in the Liberal Arts, 2007, /2005/05/24/national/cla.s.s/EDUCATION-FINAL.html?pagewanted=1.

22. Michael Katz, ed., School Reform Past and Present (Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1971), 141.