Part 11 (2/2)

31. Yetman, Yetman, Selections Selections, 73 (”barrels o' apples”); Jones, Child of Freedom Child of Freedom, 70, quoted from the Reverend Irving Lowery, Life on the Old Plantation Life on the Old Plantation (Columbia, S.C., 1911), 13, 37, 67. (Columbia, S.C., 1911), 13, 37, 67.

32. This slave was speaking in the month of June, so he had not eaten meat for almost half a year. His remark was made to Charles Ball, and reported in Ball, This slave was speaking in the month of June, so he had not eaten meat for almost half a year. His remark was made to Charles Ball, and reported in Ball, Slavery Slavery, 7980. Norrece T. Jones, who has measured Christmas meat in the context of ”ordinary” slave diet on one South Carolina plantation, writes that over a period of nine months, ”workers received meat from their master during four weeks only” (Jones, Child of Freedom Child of Freedom, 49).

33. Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 1 Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 166; anonymous Mississippi planter, ”Management of Negroes upon Southern Estates,” De Bow's Review 10 De Bow's Review 10 (1851), 621627; quoted in Breeden, (1851), 621627; quoted in Breeden, Advice Among Masters Advice Among Masters, 253254 (”whipping and forfeiture”); Jesse H. Turner, ”Management of Negroes,” in South-Western Farmer 1 South-Western Farmer 1 (1842), 114115 (”no matter by whom”); quoted ibid, 257258. (1842), 114115 (”no matter by whom”); quoted ibid, 257258.

34. Jones, Jones, Child of Freedom Child of Freedom, 70. See also Ball, Slavery in the United States Slavery in the United States, 206207.

35. Genovese, Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 579; E. P. Thompson, ”Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture,” in Journal of Social History Journal of Social History, vol. 7 (1974), 382405 (see esp. 390394); quoted in U. B. Phillips, ”Plantations with Slave Labor and Free,” American Historical Review American Historical Review 30 (1925), 742. 30 (1925), 742.

36. Cicely Cawthon, in Killion and Waller, Cicely Cawthon, in Killion and Waller, Slavery Time Slavery Time, 40 (”something else!”); Georgia Baker, ibid, 1112 (”Ma.r.s.e Alec”). See also Martha Colquitt, in Yetman, Selections Selections, 62: ”On Christmas mornin' all of us would come up to de yard back of de Big House and Ma.r.s.e Billie and de overseer handed out presents for all.”

37. Smedes, Smedes, Southern Planter Southern Planter, 161; Bessie M. Henry, ”A Yankee Schoolmistress Discovers Virginia,” Ess.e.x Inst.i.tute Historical Collections Ess.e.x Inst.i.tute Historical Collections 101 (1965), 121132; ”take the kitchen” quotation is on p. 129; Blow, ”Memoir;” Mariah Calloway, in Killion and Waller, 101 (1965), 121132; ”take the kitchen” quotation is on p. 129; Blow, ”Memoir;” Mariah Calloway, in Killion and Waller, Slavery Time Slavery Time, 142 (”ate from the family's table”). One planter gave his slaves their gifts in the family kitchen. (Palmer, ”Maryland Homes and Ways,” 260). A Jamaican planter reported in the 1820s that ”[i]n the evening they a.s.semble in their master's or manager's house, and as a matter of course, take possession of the largest room, bringing with them a fiddle and tambourines” (Barclay, Practical View Practical View, 10).

38. For masters who visited the slave quarters, see Northup, For masters who visited the slave quarters, see Northup, Twelve Years a Slave Twelve Years a Slave, 215: ”White people in great numbers a.s.semble [there] to witness the gastronomical enjoyments.” Another ex-slave later recalled that ”[w]hile they danced and sang the master and his family sat and looked on” (quoted in Killion and Waller, Slavery Times Slavery Times, 116). For an extreme version of masters joining in their slaves' festivities, see Helen Tunnicliff Catterall, Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro (2 vols., Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C., 192637), vol. 2 (1929), 140141. A misleading summary of this fascinating case can be found in Guion Griffis Johnson, (2 vols., Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C., 192637), vol. 2 (1929), 140141. A misleading summary of this fascinating case can be found in Guion Griffis Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina: A Social History Ante-Bellum North Carolina: A Social History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1937): Johnson misinterprets the story as a matter of the owner's merely inviting the slaves home to perform for the ”amus.e.m.e.nt” of his own family. See below, note 42. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1937): Johnson misinterprets the story as a matter of the owner's merely inviting the slaves home to perform for the ”amus.e.m.e.nt” of his own family. See below, note 42.

39. Cameron, ”Christmas on an Old Plantation,” 58. Cameron, ”Christmas on an Old Plantation,” 58.

40. Thorpe, ”Christmas;” Stampp, Thorpe, ”Christmas;” Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 169. Thomas Nelson Page later recalled how his own family decorated the table for their slaves' Christmas dinner with ”their own white hands”! Thomas Nelson Page, Social Life in Old Virginia Before the War Social Life in Old Virginia Before the War (New York, 1897), 102. (New York, 1897), 102.

41. Stampp, Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 169 (”happy as Lords;” quoted from John Houston Bills ms. diary, Dec. 30, 1843); Barclay, Practical View Practical View, 10 (”all authority”); Foby, ”Management of Servants,” in Southern Cultivator 11 Southern Cultivator 11 (Aug. 1853), 226228 (”difficult to say who is master”: quoted in Breeden, (Aug. 1853), 226228 (”difficult to say who is master”: quoted in Breeden, Advice Among Masters Advice Among Masters, 309; partially quoted in Genovese, 579). See also James Benson Sellers, Slavery in Alabama Slavery in Alabama (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1950), 124. (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1950), 124.

42. John N. Evans to John W. Burrus, Jan. 1, 1836; quoted in Genovese, John N. Evans to John W. Burrus, Jan. 1, 1836; quoted in Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 579580. See also the following slave owner's diary entry from December 25, 1852: ”I have endeavored ... to make my Negroes joyous and happy, and am glad to see them enjoying themselves with such a contented hearty good will” (quoted in Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 169). One North Carolina planter was brought to court in 1847 for allowing members of his own family (including his young daughters) to dance with the slaves he had invited into the Big House on Christmas night. The judge in the case acquitted this man of the charges, and in his decision wrote of the defendant's behavior that ”there was nothing contrary to morals or law in all that ... unless it be that one feel aggrieved, that these poor people should for a short s.p.a.ce be happy at finding the authority of the master give place to his benignity.... It is very possible, that the children of the family might in Christmas times, without the least impropriety, countenance the festivities of the old servants of the family by witnessing, and even mingling in them.” North Carolina v. Boyce North Carolina v. Boyce, in Catterall, Cases Concerning Slavery Cases Concerning Slavery, II, 140141. See above, note 38.

43. Quoted in Johnson, Quoted in Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina Ante-Bellum North Carolina, 552553, from ms. in N.C. Legislative Papers, June 18, 1824. For an account of the murder case that lay behind this statement, see Elizabeth A. Fenn, ”'A Perfect Equality Seemed to Reign': Slave Society and Jonkonnu,” North Carolina Historical Review North Carolina Historical Review, 65 (Apr. 1988), 127153. Compare Judge Ruffin's decision in the Boyce case: ”It would really be a source of regret, if, contrary to common custom, it were denied to slaves, in the intervals between their toils, to indulge in mirthful pastimes, or if it were unlawful for the master to permit them among his slaves, or to admit to the social enjoyment the slaves of others, by their consent.... We may let them make the most of their idle hours, and may well make allowances for the noisy outpourings of glad hearts, which providence bestows as a blessing on corporeal vigor united to a vacant mind....” (Catterall, Cases Concerning Slavery Cases Concerning Slavery, II, 139141; several pa.s.sages from this quotation are taken from the version that appears in Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina Ante-Bellum North Carolina, 555.) 44. Fithian Journals Fithian Journals, 5253.

45. Thorpe, ”Cotton,” 460461. Thorpe, ”Cotton,” 460461.

46. Julia Peterkin, in Charlmae Rollins, ed., Julia Peterkin, in Charlmae Rollins, ed., Christmas Gif; an anthology of Christmas poems, songs, and stories, written by and about Negroes Christmas Gif; an anthology of Christmas poems, songs, and stories, written by and about Negroes (Chicago: Follett, [1963]), 33; Smedes, (Chicago: Follett, [1963]), 33; Smedes, Southern Planter Southern Planter, 162; see also Blow, Memoir; Cooke, ”Christmas Time in Old Virginia,” 458; Folsom, ”Christmas at Brockton Plantation,” 486 (this involved whites only); Joel Chandler Harris, ”Something about 'Sandy Claus,'” in his On the Plantation: A Story of a Georgia Boy's Adventures During the War On the Plantation: A Story of a Georgia Boy's Adventures During the War (New York, 1892), 116; Johnson, (New York, 1892), 116; Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina Ante-Bellum North Carolina, 552.

47. James Bolton, in Killion and Waller, James Bolton, in Killion and Waller, Slavery Time Slavery Time, 25; see also Blow, Memoir.

48. Harris, ”Something About 'Sandy Claus,'” 116; Rollins, Harris, ”Something About 'Sandy Claus,'” 116; Rollins, Christmas Gif'! Christmas Gif'!, 35 (Hurston story). In some places this ”game” lasted into the twentieth century. See Harnett T. Kane, ibid., 16. Zora Neale Hurston told a story of a black man who hid behind a stump one Christmas and took G.o.d Almighty by surprise with the cry ”Christmas gift!” (ibid., 35). There is even a reference to this ritual in William Faulkner's novel The Sound and the Fury The Sound and the Fury. As young Quentin Compson leaves Harvard College in despair and arrives by train in Mississippi on December 25, the first thing that happens to him when he steps off the train-it is what makes him realize he has arrived ”home”-is that he is approached by a Negro beggar who accosts him with the words ”Christmas gift.”

49. Page, Page, Social Life Social Life, 96; Baird, Edmonds Edmonds, 910 (1857 entry), 177 (1863 entry). See also William Gilmore Simms, The Golden Christmas: A Chronicle of St. Johns, Berkeley The Golden Christmas: A Chronicle of St. Johns, Berkeley (Charleston, S.C., 1852), 143145. (Charleston, S.C., 1852), 143145.

50. Edmonds married only in 1870, at the age of 30. One young Virginia married woman claimed the perquisites of both roles: ”We [she and her husband] have invitation to a dinner on Wednesday ..., and I am invited among the young people to an evening party on Friday-so you perceive I have [both] married Edmonds married only in 1870, at the age of 30. One young Virginia married woman claimed the perquisites of both roles: ”We [she and her husband] have invitation to a dinner on Wednesday ..., and I am invited among the young people to an evening party on Friday-so you perceive I have [both] married and and single privileges” (Tyler ms., Swem Library, College of William and Mary). single privileges” (Tyler ms., Swem Library, College of William and Mary).

51. Smedes, Smedes, Southern Planter Southern Planter, 162.

52. Stampp, Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 366 (”best rigging”: quoted from John W. Brown diary, Dec. 25, 1853); Cameron, ”Christmas on an Old Plantation.”

53. Thorpe, ”Cotton,” 460 (”drop their plantation names”); Mary A. Livermore, Thorpe, ”Cotton,” 460 (”drop their plantation names”); Mary A. Livermore, The Story of My Life The Story of My Life (Hartford, 1897), 210 (”almost a burlesque”). (Hartford, 1897), 210 (”almost a burlesque”).

54. Thorpe, ”Cotton,” 460.

55. Henry, ”Yankee Schoolmistress,” 129130 Bayard Hall reported that slaves mimicked the idiosyncrasies of the whites' dialogue and mannerisms (Hall, Henry, ”Yankee Schoolmistress,” 129130 Bayard Hall reported that slaves mimicked the idiosyncrasies of the whites' dialogue and mannerisms (Hall, Frank Freeman Frank Freeman, 109110).

56. Quoted Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina Quoted Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina, 145.

57. Liberator Liberator 8 (May 26, 1837, 85. The writer acknowledged that ”very few of the blacks were at church,” and added that ”the distant sounds of c.o.o.ner reached even there.” 8 (May 26, 1837, 85. The writer acknowledged that ”very few of the blacks were at church,” and added that ”the distant sounds of c.o.o.ner reached even there.”

58. Johnson, Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina Ante-Bellum North Carolina, 552553 (quoted from ms. in N.C. Legislative Papers, June 18, 1824). For an account of the incident behind this statement-the killing of a white man by a John Canoer-see Fenn, ”A Perfect Equality Seemed to Reign,'” 127153. See also Edward Warren, A Doctor's Experiences in Three Continents A Doctor's Experiences in Three Continents (Baltimore, 1885), 198203. (Baltimore, 1885), 198203.

59. James Norcom to his daughter Mary Matilda Norcom, Jan. 13, 1838; quoted by Jean f.a.gan Yellin in Jacobs, James Norcom to his daughter Mary Matilda Norcom, Jan. 13, 1838; quoted by Jean f.a.gan Yellin in Jacobs, Incidents, 277 Incidents, 277. See also Edward Warren, A Doctor's Experiences in Three Continents A Doctor's Experiences in Three Continents (Baltimore, 1885), 198203. (Baltimore, 1885), 198203.

60. Jacobs, Jacobs, Incidents Incidents, 180.

61. Ibid., 179180. Ibid., 179180.

62. Dougald MacMillan, ”John Kuners,” Dougald MacMillan, ”John Kuners,” Journal of American Folklore Journal of American Folklore 39 (1926), 5357. This verse is quoted by Lawrence Levine, who writes that it was sung by the John Canoe band to ”those whites who did not respond to their offerings with generosity.” Levine, 39 (1926), 5357. This verse is quoted by Lawrence Levine, who writes that it was sung by the John Canoe band to ”those whites who did not respond to their offerings with generosity.” Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 13. I have found one other (rather inoffensive) fragment of a begging song, recalled years later by a white woman who was raised in the area: ”C'ris'mas comes but once er yeah, / An' ev'y po niggiah arter have 'e sha'” (Folsom, ”Christmas at Brockton Plantation,” 485). (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 13. I have found one other (rather inoffensive) fragment of a begging song, recalled years later by a white woman who was raised in the area: ”C'ris'mas comes but once er yeah, / An' ev'y po niggiah arter have 'e sha'” (Folsom, ”Christmas at Brockton Plantation,” 485).

63. Jean f.a.gan Yellin quotes from a letter from John W. Nunley to Jean f.a.gan Yellin suggesting that John Canoe was ”a creolized masquerade tradition that has incorporated African and English traditions of masking.... The penchant for rum and the collecting of money by the maskers is also a shared trans-Atlantic tradition” (Jacobs, Jean f.a.gan Yellin quotes from a letter from John W. Nunley to Jean f.a.gan Yellin suggesting that John Canoe was ”a creolized masquerade tradition that has incorporated African and English traditions of masking.... The penchant for rum and the collecting of money by the maskers is also a shared trans-Atlantic tradition” (Jacobs, Incidents Incidents, 278279n). Frederick G. Ca.s.sidy claims that the ceremony comes from the ”Gold Coast,” though it was widely observed in the New World: Frederick G. Ca.s.sidy, ”'Hipsaw' and 'John Canoe,'”American Speech 41 (1966), 4551. On ”John Canoe” in North Carolina, see Fenn, ”A Perfect Equality';” Richard Walser, ”His Wors.h.i.+pful John Kuner,” 41 (1966), 4551. On ”John Canoe” in North Carolina, see Fenn, ”A Perfect Equality';” Richard Walser, ”His Wors.h.i.+pful John Kuner,” North Carolina Folklore North Carolina Folklore 19 (1971), 160172; and Nancy Ping, ”Black Musical Activities in Antebellum Wilmington, North Carolina,” 19 (1971), 160172; and Nancy Ping, ”Black Musical Activities in Antebellum Wilmington, North Carolina,” The Black Perspective in Music The Black Perspective in Music 8 (1980), 139160. As far as the ridiculing song, Dena Epstein notes that ”the parallel with African songs of derision is evident” (Epstein, 8 (1980), 139160. As far as the ridiculing song, Dena Epstein notes that ”the parallel with African songs of derision is evident” (Epstein, Sinful Tunes and Spirituals Sinful Tunes and Spirituals [Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977], 131). The song quoted by Lawrence Levine is taken from Dougald MacMillan, ”John Kuners,” [Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977], 131). The song quoted by Lawrence Levine is taken from Dougald MacMillan, ”John Kuners,” Journal of American Folklore Journal of American Folklore 39 (1926), 5357. See also Levine, 39 (1926), 5357. See also Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness) Black Culture and Black Consciousness), 12. Ira de A. Reid, ”The John Canoe Festival: A New World Africanism,” Phylon Phylon 3 (1942), 349370, argues for the English origin of the ritual. Martha Warren Beckwith, 3 (1942), 349370, argues for the English origin of the ritual. Martha Warren Beckwith, Black Roadways: A Study of Jamaican Folk Life Black Roadways: A Study of Jamaican Folk Life (Chapel Hill, 1929), gives evidence from the 1920s that Shakespearean plays were being used by the John Canoers. (See also the same author's (Chapel Hill, 1929), gives evidence from the 1920s that Shakespearean plays were being used by the John Canoers. (See also the same author's Christmas Mummings in Jamaica Christmas Mummings in Jamaica (Pubs. of the Folklore Foundation: Va.s.sar College, 1923). (Pubs. of the Folklore Foundation: Va.s.sar College, 1923).

64. Epstein, Epstein, Sinful Tunes Sinful Tunes, 131.

65. For an instance, see Catterall, For an instance, see Catterall, Cases Concerning Slavery Cases Concerning Slavery, vol. 2, 536: Tennessee cases: ”Bowling v. Statton and Swann, ... ”Bowling v. Statton and Swann, ... December 1847. '[A]ction ... for the loss of a negro man ... hired ... and never returned.'” December 1847. '[A]ction ... for the loss of a negro man ... hired ... and never returned.'”

66. Dan T. Carter, ”The Anatomy of Fear: The Christmas Day Insurrection Scare of 1865,” in Dan T. Carter, ”The Anatomy of Fear: The Christmas Day Insurrection Scare of 1865,” in Journal of Southern History Journal of Southern History 42 (1976), 345364; ”nearly one-third the rumors” is on p. 358. Joel Williamson also notes that in South Carolina ”[t]he Fourth of July ... and Christmas or New Year's Day had marked a large number of insurrections or planned insurrections.” Joel Williamson, 42 (1976), 345364; ”nearly one-third the rumors” is on p. 358. Joel Williamson also notes that in South Carolina ”[t]he Fourth of July ... and Christmas or New Year's Day had marked a large number of insurrections or planned insurrections.” Joel Williamson, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 18611877 After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 18611877 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965), 250. For a report of an 1835 slave revolt in Louisiana that was planned for Christmas, see Joe Gray Taylor, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965), 250. For a report of an 1835 slave revolt in Louisiana that was planned for Christmas, see Joe Gray Taylor, Negro Slavery in Louisiana Negro Slavery in Louisiana (New York, 1963), 218220. The South Carolina report is from Frederick Law Olmstead, A (New York, 1963), 218220. The South Carolina report is from Frederick Law Olmstead, A Journey Through the Back Country Journey Through the Back Country (London, 1860), 203; quoted in Joseph Cephas Carroll, (London, 1860), 203; quoted in Joseph Cephas Carroll, Slave Insurrections in the United States, 18001865 Slave Insurrections in the United States, 18001865 (Boston, 1938), 176. For the 1856 reports, see Herbert Aptheker, (Boston, 1938), 176. For the 1856 reports, see Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 347350. On December 24, 1856, one Virginia slave was discovered carrying a letter concerning an imminent ”meeting” that would lead to ”freedom;” the letter claimed that soon ”the country is ours certain” (quoted ibid., 350). Some revolts were timed for July 4, the other major slave holiday, and one that was also charged with a powerful symbolism of liberation. Nat Turner, for example, originally intended his 1831 rebellion to begin on July 4. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 347350. On December 24, 1856, one Virginia slave was discovered carrying a letter concerning an imminent ”meeting” that would lead to ”freedom;” the letter claimed that soon ”the country is ours certain” (quoted ibid., 350). Some revolts were timed for July 4, the other major slave holiday, and one that was also charged with a powerful symbolism of liberation. Nat Turner, for example, originally intended his 1831 rebellion to begin on July 4.

67. See William McFeely, See William McFeely, Yankee Stepfather: General O. O. Howard and the Freedmen Yankee Stepfather: General O. O. Howard and the Freedmen (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968); Eric Foner, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968); Eric Foner, Reconstruction America's Unfinished Revolution, 18631877 Reconstruction America's Unfinished Revolution, 18631877 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988); Carter, ”Anatomy of Fear;” William C. Harris, (New York: Harper & Row, 1988); Carter, ”Anatomy of Fear;” William C. Harris, Presidential Reconstruction in Mississippi Presidential Reconstruction in Mississippi (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967), 8889; Claude F. Oubre, (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967), 8889; Claude F. Oubre, Forty Acres and a Mule: The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Land Owners.h.i.+p Forty Acres and a Mule: The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Land Owners.h.i.+p (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), esp. pp. 189. The Civil War origins of a potential land-reform policy are discussed in LaWanda c.o.x, ”The Promise of Land for the Freedmen,” (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), esp. pp. 189. The Civil War origins of a potential land-reform policy are discussed in LaWanda c.o.x, ”The Promise of Land for the Freedmen,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review Mississippi Valley Historical Review 45 (1958), 413440. 45 (1958), 413440.

68. Henry Watson to his daughter Julia Watson, Dec. 16, 1865, ms. in Frost Library, Amherst College. This letter was brought to my attention by Wesley Borucki. Watson added that ”The [black] women say that they never mean to do any more outdoor work, that Henry Watson to his daughter Julia Watson, Dec. 16, 1865, ms. in Frost Library, Amherst College. This letter was brought to my attention by Wesley Borucki. Watson added that ”The [black] women say that they never mean to do any more outdoor work, that white men white men support support their their wives and they mean that wives and they mean that their their husbands shall support husbands shall support them.” them.” Such hopes to abandon ”outdoor work” suggest intriguingly that these freedwomen harbored bourgeois aspirations-i.e., to work in the home and be supported by their husbands. Such hopes to abandon ”outdoor work” suggest intriguingly that these freedwomen harbored bourgeois aspirations-i.e., to work in the home and be supported by their husbands.

69. Carter, ”Anatomy of Fear,” a.s.sociates the ”Christmas Riots of 1865” with the long history of rowdy behavior on this holiday but does not go on to a.s.sociate the holiday with gestures of paternalist largesse on the part of whites. Carter, ”Anatomy of Fear,” a.s.sociates the ”Christmas Riots of 1865” with the long history of rowdy behavior on this holiday but does not go on to a.s.sociate the holiday with gestures of paternalist largesse on the part of whites.

70. Texas State Gazette Texas State Gazette [Austin], quoted in [Austin], quoted in The Daily Picayune The Daily Picayune [New Orleans], Nov. 21, 1865 (”waiting for the jubilee”-the writer had traveled through Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana); [New Orleans], Nov. 21, 1865 (”waiting for the jubilee”-the writer had traveled through Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana); Daily Picayune Daily Picayune, Dec. 27, 1865 (”their old masters”).

71. Henry Watson to Julia Watson, Dec. 16, 1865. ”As for work,” one South Carolina planter told a visiting reporter, ”[T]he freedmen were doing absolutely nothing. He had overheard one of his girls saying that she hadn't seen any freedom yet, she had to work just as hard as ever. And that was the feeling of a great many of them. Then, as he had said, they were waiting for January, and nothing could be done with them till they became convinced that they must work for wages” Henry Watson to Julia Watson, Dec. 16, 1865. ”As for work,” one South Carolina planter told a visiting reporter, ”[T]he freedmen were doing absolutely nothing. He had overheard one of his girls saying that she hadn't seen any freedom yet, she had to work just as hard as ever. And that was the feeling of a great many of them. Then, as he had said, they were waiting for January, and nothing could be done with them till they became convinced that they must work for wages” (The Nation (The Nation I [1865], 651). I [1865], 651).

72. For example, the provisional governor of South Carolina, James Lawrence Orr, wrote: ”[During] Christmas week, which has always been a holiday for the negroes they will congregate in large numbers in the villages and towns where they will get liquor and while under its influence I fear that collisions will occur between them and the whites. When once commenced no one can tell where the conflict will end” (Orr to Gen. Daniel Sickles, Dec. 13, 1865; quoted in Carter, ”Anatomy of Fear,” 358n). For example, the provisional governor of South Carolina, James Lawrence Orr, wrote: ”[During] Christmas week, which has always been a holiday for the negroes they will congregate in large numbers in the villages and towns where they will get liquor and while under its influence I fear that collisions will occur between them and the whites. When once commenced no one can tell where the conflict will end” (Orr to Gen. Daniel Sickles, Dec. 13, 1865; quoted in Carter, ”Anatomy of Fear,” 358n).

73. Atlanta Daily Intelligencer Atlanta Daily Intelligencer, Dec. 21, 1865; quoted in Carter, ”Anatomy of Fear,” 358); The Nation The Nation I (1865), 651. I (1865), 651.

74. Shreveport Gazette Shreveport Gazette, reprinted in Cincinnati Daily Enquirer Cincinnati Daily Enquirer, Nov. 23, 1865 (”growing more insolent”); ibid., Nov. 24, 1865. For other reports, see the following (all 1865); ibid., Nov. 28 (Louisiana, Texas); ibid., Nov. 30 (Georgia); ibid., Dec. 23 (Texas, citing San Antonio Gazette); San Antonio Gazette); ibid., Dec. 23 (Virginia); ibid., Dec. 23 (Virginia); National Intelligencer National Intelligencer [Was.h.i.+ngton], Nov. 29 (Mississippi); [Was.h.i.+ngton], Nov. 29 (Mississippi); Was.h.i.+ngton Evening Star Was.h.i.+ngton Evening Star, Dec. 26 (Mississippi, citing the Vicksburg Journal); Cincinnati Enquirer Vicksburg Journal); Cincinnati Enquirer, Nov. 28 (Texas).

75. New Orleans New Orleans True Delta True Delta, Dec. 15, 1865, reprinted in National Intelligencer National Intelligencer [Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.], Dec. 30, 1865. [Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.], Dec. 30, 1865.

76. The Daily Picayune The Daily Picayune [New Orleans], Nov. 14, 1865. [New Orleans], Nov. 14, 1865.

77. General Howard's address to the freedmen was printed in the New Orleans General Howard's address to the freedmen was printed in the New Orleans Times Times, Dec. 10, 1865, and quoted in Carter, ”Anatomy of Fear,” 360. McFeely, Yankee Stepfather Yankee Stepfather, 105, quotes ”a la mode Santa Claus.” Colonel Strong's speech was quoted in The Daily Picayune The Daily Picayune [New Orleans], Nov. 28, 1865. (Colonel Strong was General Howard's inspector general; he had been sent to Texas by Howard himself.) Not all agents of the Freedmen's Bureau were willing to do this dirty work. At least one, Thomas Conway of the New Orleans office, continued into the fall to advise freedmen that they could apply for free land through the end of December (McFeely, [New Orleans], Nov. 28, 1865. (Colonel Strong was General Howard's inspector general; he had been sent to Texas by Howard himself.) Not all agents of the Freedmen's Bureau were willing to do this dirty work. At least one, Thomas Conway of the New Orleans office, continued into the fall to advise freedmen that they could apply for free land through the end of December (McFeely, Yankee Stepfather Yankee Stepfather, 179; Oubre, Forty Acres Forty Acres, 34). And another, General Edgar Gregory-formerly a radical abolitionist-was reported to have given a somewhat incendiary speech to Texas freedmen, telling them that they were ent.i.tled to free land and urging them not to sign unfavorable labor contracts (The Daily Picayune (The Daily Picayune [New Orleans], Nov. 28, 1865). It was agents such as these that the Southern press regarded as the ”bad white men” who were corrupting the black population. For the official mission of the Freedmen's Bureau, see Carter, ”Anatomy of Fear,” 360. [New Orleans], Nov. 28, 1865). It was agents such as these that the Southern press regarded as the ”bad white men” who were corrupting the black population. For the official mission of the Freedmen's Bureau, see Carter, ”Anatomy of Fear,” 360.

78. Columbus [Miss.] Sentinel Columbus [Miss.] Sentinel, reprinted in New Orleans Daily Picayune Daily Picayune, Nov. 28, 1865. See also ms. letter of Henry Watson to Julia Watson, Dec. 16, 1865, Amherst College Archives.

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