Part 11 (1/2)

46. Edmund Alton, ”The Children's Christmas Club of Was.h.i.+ngton City,” Edmund Alton, ”The Children's Christmas Club of Was.h.i.+ngton City,” St. Nicholas St. Nicholas 15 (1887), 146149. 15 (1887), 146149.

47. New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 26, 1851; ibid., Dec. 29, 1852. For 1853, see ibid., Dec. 27, 1853.

48. The The Tribune Tribune of Dec. 26, 1853, published an extensive list of the charitable agencies that had held open house the previous day-twenty in all. of Dec. 26, 1853, published an extensive list of the charitable agencies that had held open house the previous day-twenty in all.

49. Ibid., Dec. 27, 1853. For a similar story about a Boston inst.i.tution, see ”Christmas Eve at the Orphan Asylum,” Ibid., Dec. 27, 1853. For a similar story about a Boston inst.i.tution, see ”Christmas Eve at the Orphan Asylum,” Child's Friend Child's Friend (Jan., 1856), 7779. (Jan., 1856), 7779.

50. There were three other reports of charity visitations in that same number of the There were three other reports of charity visitations in that same number of the Tribune Tribune. All three took place at inst.i.tutions for children: Randalls Island, the New York Juvenile Asylum (the children there were served a dinner ”which they enjoyed in a manner that would have made many a street vagrant envious”), and the Girls' Industrial School.

51. See Richard Sennett, See Richard Sennett, Families Against the City: Middle-Cla.s.s Homes of Industrial Chicago, 18721890 Families Against the City: Middle-Cla.s.s Homes of Industrial Chicago, 18721890 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970). (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970).

52. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1875; New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 27, 1875; Louisa May Alcott to the Alcott family, Dec. 25, 1875, in Joel Myerson and Daniel Shealy, eds., The Selected Letters of Louisa May Alcott The Selected Letters of Louisa May Alcott (Boston: Little, Brown, 1987), 210213. That same year Alcott published a novel in which several children experience a perfect, present-filled Christmas: ”'Now, I believe I've got every thing in the world that I want,'” one of them says. (Louisa May Alcott, (Boston: Little, Brown, 1987), 210213. That same year Alcott published a novel in which several children experience a perfect, present-filled Christmas: ”'Now, I believe I've got every thing in the world that I want,'” one of them says. (Louisa May Alcott, Eight Cousins; or, The Aunt-Hill Eight Cousins; or, The Aunt-Hill [Boston, 1875], 226227.) [Boston, 1875], 226227.) 53. Edward W. Bok, ”Complicating Christmas,” Edward W. Bok, ”Complicating Christmas,” Ladies' Home Journal Ladies' Home Journal, Dec. 1897. For women's work at Christmas, see Leslie Bella, The Christmas Imperative: Leisure, Family and Women's Work The Christmas Imperative: Leisure, Family and Women's Work (Halifax, N.S.: Fernwood Pub., 1992). (Halifax, N.S.: Fernwood Pub., 1992).

54. Jackson Lears, Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 18801920 No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 18801920 (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Christopher Lasch, (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Christopher Lasch, The New Radicalism in America, 1889 The New Radicalism in America, 18891963: The Intellectual as a Social Type (New York: Knopf, 1965). For an example of the Social Gospel applied to Christmas, see George Hodges, ”What the Christmas Spirit Saith unto the Churches,” (New York: Knopf, 1965). For an example of the Social Gospel applied to Christmas, see George Hodges, ”What the Christmas Spirit Saith unto the Churches,” New England Magazine New England Magazine, Dec. 1896, 469476.

55. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1890.

56. Ibid., Dec. 26, 1891. The event was repeated only once, the following year. It is evident that this event was resented by the established charitable agencies, who saw it as drawing attention (and contributions) away from their own work. A representative of the Christmas Society told a reporter the following year, ”The organized charities of the city say we have been the means of depriving them of subscriptions [i.e., contributions].” Rental of Madison Square Garden alone cost $800 (ibid., Dec. 27, 1892). Ibid., Dec. 26, 1891. The event was repeated only once, the following year. It is evident that this event was resented by the established charitable agencies, who saw it as drawing attention (and contributions) away from their own work. A representative of the Christmas Society told a reporter the following year, ”The organized charities of the city say we have been the means of depriving them of subscriptions [i.e., contributions].” Rental of Madison Square Garden alone cost $800 (ibid., Dec. 27, 1892).

57. Ibid., Dec. 26, 1899. See also the 1901 report: ”From the boxes many prominent people looked down upon the 3,000 Christmas diners, the majority of whom remained until the end of the entertainment.” The article concluded with a list of prominent New Yorkers who ”purchased boxes” for this event Ibid., Dec. 26, 1899. See also the 1901 report: ”From the boxes many prominent people looked down upon the 3,000 Christmas diners, the majority of whom remained until the end of the entertainment.” The article concluded with a list of prominent New Yorkers who ”purchased boxes” for this event (New York Times (New York Times, Dec. 26, 1901).

58. New York World New York World, Dec. 26, 1899; quoted in Gilbert, ”Friends or Dependents,” 9.

59. New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 26, 1902.

60. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1903. New York's mayor, Seth Low, was in attendance on this occasion.

61. Ibid., Dec. 26, 1905. Ibid., Dec. 26, 1905.

62. New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 26, 1895. The article continues: ”After eating three plates of turkey and as many dishes of sauce the soup is called for, and when they have got outside of one or two bowls they stuff their pockets with candy, apples, nuts, bananas and other good things and hasten to the gymnasium, where they exercise vigorously for an hour.... All these customs were kept strictly at the dinner last night.” For other newsboys' dinners given by Fliess, see ibid., Dec. 26, 1895; New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1899 (with descriptions of pie-throwing in previous years); New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1901 (a dinner given by Frank Tilford, who was quoted as saying: ”Who is there that could watch these little fellows enjoying themselves without feeling happy?” Nevertheless, ”twelve policemen were present to maintain order.” New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 26, 1908 (a history of the newsboys' Christmas dinners).

63. There may have been an additional reason for the newsboys' preferences: They were rejecting the ”bourgeois” practice of separating sweet dishes from the rest of the food as a distinct course termed ”dessert.” There may have been an additional reason for the newsboys' preferences: They were rejecting the ”bourgeois” practice of separating sweet dishes from the rest of the food as a distinct course termed ”dessert.”

64. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 25, 1876.

Chapter 7.

1. ”Christmas at the South,” ”Christmas at the South,” New York Times New York Times, Dec. 25, 1867. Over subsequent decades, Southerners themselves evoked similar recollections of Christmas as part of the psychological a.r.s.enal they employed to plead with Northern whites for reconciliation along cla.s.s and racial lines (which, they implicitly argued, ought to transcend the earlier opposition along regional lines). See, for example, three fictional works by Thomas Nelson Page: A Captured Santa Claus A Captured Santa Claus (New York; 1902; first published in 1891); ”Polly: A Christmas Recollection,” in (New York; 1902; first published in 1891); ”Polly: A Christmas Recollection,” in In Ole Virginia; or, Ma.r.s.e Chan and Other Stories In Ole Virginia; or, Ma.r.s.e Chan and Other Stories (New York, 1887), 187230; and ”The Christmas Peace,” in (New York, 1887), 187230; and ”The Christmas Peace,” in Bred in the Bone Bred in the Bone (New York, 1904), 183234. See also Joel Chandler Harris, ”A Child of Christmas: A Christmas Tale of North and South,” in (New York, 1904), 183234. See also Joel Chandler Harris, ”A Child of Christmas: A Christmas Tale of North and South,” in The Making of a Statesman and Other Stories The Making of a Statesman and Other Stories (New York, 1902), 71151. (New York, 1902), 71151.

2. John Esten Cooke, ”Christmas Time in Old Virginia,” John Esten Cooke, ”Christmas Time in Old Virginia,” Magazine of American History with Notes and Queries Magazine of American History with Notes and Queries 10 (1883), 443459; the ”Bracebridge Hall” pa.s.sage is on p. 451. Another account, published in 1897 by Thomas Nelson Page, included, just as Irving had done, an extended description of the antic.i.p.ation of the guests who were being driven in carriages to spend Christmas in their old family mansion. (The ill.u.s.tration for this section-it is captioned ”At last the 'big gate' is reached”-was surely intended to evoke the highly popular ill.u.s.tration that Randolph Caledecott prepared for the 1875 edition of 10 (1883), 443459; the ”Bracebridge Hall” pa.s.sage is on p. 451. Another account, published in 1897 by Thomas Nelson Page, included, just as Irving had done, an extended description of the antic.i.p.ation of the guests who were being driven in carriages to spend Christmas in their old family mansion. (The ill.u.s.tration for this section-it is captioned ”At last the 'big gate' is reached”-was surely intended to evoke the highly popular ill.u.s.tration that Randolph Caledecott prepared for the 1875 edition of Bracebridge Hall.) Bracebridge Hall.) It is no coincidence that Page, who helped invent the idea of the old Southern Christmas, was also largely responsible for inventing the myth of Old Dixie. It is no coincidence that Page, who helped invent the idea of the old Southern Christmas, was also largely responsible for inventing the myth of Old Dixie.

3. ”Abolition of Christmas,” ”Abolition of Christmas,” Evangelical and Literary Magazine Evangelical and Literary Magazine (Richmond) 6 (Dec. 1823), 636639. (Richmond) 6 (Dec. 1823), 636639.

4. Charles G. Parsons, Charles G. Parsons, An Inside View of Slavery: A Tour Among the Planters An Inside View of Slavery: A Tour Among the Planters (Boston, 1855; reprinted, Savannah, 1974), 27 (delirium tremens); Nancy Chappelear Baird, ed., (Boston, 1855; reprinted, Savannah, 1974), 27 (delirium tremens); Nancy Chappelear Baird, ed., Journals of Amanda Virginia Edmonds, La.s.s of the Mosby Confederacy, 18591867 Journals of Amanda Virginia Edmonds, La.s.s of the Mosby Confederacy, 18591867 (Stephens City, Va., 1984), 910 (1857), 64 (1861); Mary A. Livermore, (Stephens City, Va., 1984), 910 (1857), 64 (1861); Mary A. Livermore, The Story of My Life The Story of My Life (Hartford, 1897), 210 (drinking children). See also Baird, (Hartford, 1897), 210 (drinking children). See also Baird, Edmonds Edmonds, 243 (1866): ”'Christmas Gift' is uttered by all tongues this morning, then nog, breakfast, and almost tight!”

5. Norfolk Norfolk Public Ledger Public Ledger, Dec. 26, 2876. Norfolk was a port town with a naval yard and many saloons; it experienced a race riot in 1866. See George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1984), 31. (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1984), 31.

6. Journals and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian 17721774 Journals and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian 17721774 (Williamsburg, Va., 1945), 52. The Robert E. Lee letter is quoted by James M. MacPherson, (Williamsburg, Va., 1945), 52. The Robert E. Lee letter is quoted by James M. MacPherson, New York Review of Books New York Review of Books 42 (Dec. 21, 1995), 15. For evidence that Christmas misrule was common in parts of the South at least as early as the late seventeenth century, see Michel Sobel's provocative book, 42 (Dec. 21, 1995), 15. For evidence that Christmas misrule was common in parts of the South at least as early as the late seventeenth century, see Michel Sobel's provocative book, The World They Made Together: Black and White Values in Eighteenth-Century Virginia The World They Made Together: Black and White Values in Eighteenth-Century Virginia (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1987), 37, 67, and 263n13. (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1987), 37, 67, and 263n13.

7. M. M. Folsom, ”Christmas at Brockton Plantation,” M. M. Folsom, ”Christmas at Brockton Plantation,” Southern Bivuoac Southern Bivuoac n.s. 1 (1886), 483489; quoted pa.s.sage is on p. 486. n.s. 1 (1886), 483489; quoted pa.s.sage is on p. 486.

8. William Nevison Blow, ma.n.u.script Memoir, Archives of the College of William and Mary. This item was brought to my attention by Patrick Breen. William Nevison Blow, ma.n.u.script Memoir, Archives of the College of William and Mary. This item was brought to my attention by Patrick Breen.

9. Susan Dabney Smedes, Memorials of a Southern Planter Memorials of a Southern Planter (3rd ed., Baltimore, 1888), 160161. (3rd ed., Baltimore, 1888), 160161.

10. Quoted in Abe C. Ravitz, ”John Pierpont and the Slaves' Christmas,” Quoted in Abe C. Ravitz, ”John Pierpont and the Slaves' Christmas,” Phylon Phylon 21 (1960), 384385; also quoted in Eugene D. Genovese, 21 (1960), 384385; also quoted in Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Pantheon, 1974), 578. The one general exception to the pattern of free time involves house slaves, whose labor (unlike that of field hands) was needed at Christmas. (New York: Pantheon, 1974), 578. The one general exception to the pattern of free time involves house slaves, whose labor (unlike that of field hands) was needed at Christmas.

11. See also the testimony of Henry Cheatam, who attributed the policy to a mean overseer: ”[D]ere weren't no celebratin', 'ceptin' at hog killin'. Dat was de biggest dat of de year.” Quoted in Norman R. Yetman, ed., See also the testimony of Henry Cheatam, who attributed the policy to a mean overseer: ”[D]ere weren't no celebratin', 'ceptin' at hog killin'. Dat was de biggest dat of de year.” Quoted in Norman R. Yetman, ed., Life Under the ”Peculiar Inst.i.tution”: Selections from the Slave Narrative Collection Life Under the ”Peculiar Inst.i.tution”: Selections from the Slave Narrative Collection (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), 56. A few planters-they seem to have cl.u.s.tered in the ”new” States from Alabama to Texas-allowed no holiday at all. An ex-slave from Alabama remembered once having to build a lime kiln at Christmas (ibid., 147). An ex-slave from Oklahoma recalled that her owner ”didn't [even] tell us anything about Christmas ..., and all we done was work” (ibid., 329). The same informant also argued: ”The way he made the Negroes work so hard. Old Master must have been trying to get rich” (ibid., 326). A planter's wife in Texas justified this policy by telling her slaves that ”n.i.g.g.e.rs was made to work for white folks.” But the powerful hold of the holiday even within this family is demonstrated by the fact that on at least one occasion another white woman living in the household secretly baked two Christmas cakes for the slaves (ibid., 70). (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), 56. A few planters-they seem to have cl.u.s.tered in the ”new” States from Alabama to Texas-allowed no holiday at all. An ex-slave from Alabama remembered once having to build a lime kiln at Christmas (ibid., 147). An ex-slave from Oklahoma recalled that her owner ”didn't [even] tell us anything about Christmas ..., and all we done was work” (ibid., 329). The same informant also argued: ”The way he made the Negroes work so hard. Old Master must have been trying to get rich” (ibid., 326). A planter's wife in Texas justified this policy by telling her slaves that ”n.i.g.g.e.rs was made to work for white folks.” But the powerful hold of the holiday even within this family is demonstrated by the fact that on at least one occasion another white woman living in the household secretly baked two Christmas cakes for the slaves (ibid., 70).

12. For example, Mingo White recalled: ”On Christmas we didn't have to do no work, no more'n feed the stock and do de li'l work round de house. When we got through with dat we had de rest of de day to run round wherever we wanted to go. 'Course, we had to get permission from de master” (ibid., 314). See also Tatler, ”Management of Negroes,” in For example, Mingo White recalled: ”On Christmas we didn't have to do no work, no more'n feed the stock and do de li'l work round de house. When we got through with dat we had de rest of de day to run round wherever we wanted to go. 'Course, we had to get permission from de master” (ibid., 314). See also Tatler, ”Management of Negroes,” in Southern Cultivator Southern Cultivator 8 (1850), 162164: ”Believing that the strolling about of negroes for a week at a time during what are called Christmas Holidays is productive of much evil, the writer has set his face against the custom. Christmas is observed as a Sacred Festival. On that day as good a dinner as the plantation will afford is served for the negroes, and they all sit down to a common table, but the next day go to work. From considerations both of morality and needful rest and recreation to the negro, I much prefer giving a week in July, when the crop is laid by, to giving three days at Christmas.” Quoted in James O. Breeden, ed., 8 (1850), 162164: ”Believing that the strolling about of negroes for a week at a time during what are called Christmas Holidays is productive of much evil, the writer has set his face against the custom. Christmas is observed as a Sacred Festival. On that day as good a dinner as the plantation will afford is served for the negroes, and they all sit down to a common table, but the next day go to work. From considerations both of morality and needful rest and recreation to the negro, I much prefer giving a week in July, when the crop is laid by, to giving three days at Christmas.” Quoted in James O. Breeden, ed., Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 258. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 258.

13. Yetman, Yetman, Selections Selections, 281. There was at least one ritual, practiced in the ”low country” of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, that allowed slaves to exert at least symbolic control over the length of the holidays: They were to last as long as the ”Yule log” continued to burn in one piece. Slaves would choose the largest possible tree, chop it down a year in advance, soak it in water for the entire year, and light it early on Christmas Day in the hall of the Big House, where it would be the ”back-log.” The holidays would be over when the Yule log finally burned into two pieces-a process that could take a full week. This ritual was recalled by Booker T. Was.h.i.+ngton in ”Christmas Days in Old Virginia” (1907), in Louis R. Harlan, ed., The Booker?. Was.h.i.+ngton Papers The Booker?. Was.h.i.+ngton Papers (14 vols., Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 197289), 1, 394397 (Yule log is on p. 397). See also John Williamson Palmer, ”Old Maryland Homes and Ways,” (14 vols., Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 197289), 1, 394397 (Yule log is on p. 397). See also John Williamson Palmer, ”Old Maryland Homes and Ways,” Century Century 49 (1894), 260; and Rebecca Cameron, ”Christmas on an Old Plantation,” in 49 (1894), 260; and Rebecca Cameron, ”Christmas on an Old Plantation,” in The Ladies' Home Journal The Ladies' Home Journal (Dec. 1891), 58. This ritual was apparently devised by literary-minded Anglophile planters; it derived from an English custom in which tenants and servants were permitted to eat at the patron's table as long as the Yule log burned. (Dec. 1891), 58. This ritual was apparently devised by literary-minded Anglophile planters; it derived from an English custom in which tenants and servants were permitted to eat at the patron's table as long as the Yule log burned.

14. Genovese, Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 574575. I have not encountered a single case in which slaves were unambiguously deprived of their customary right to freedom from labor at Christmas. The two cases most nearly approaching this both seem to refer to the deprivation of other privileges. In 1854, James Henry Hammond denied slaves Christmas celebrations at his plantation, on account of a poor (wasted) harvest. He wrote in his record book on Dec. 25, 1854: ”No festivities, crops being lost-negroes not having done their duty.” (Norrece T. Jones, Jr., Born a Child of Freedom Yet a Slave: Mechanisms of Control and Strategies of Resistance in Antebellum South Carolina Born a Child of Freedom Yet a Slave: Mechanisms of Control and Strategies of Resistance in Antebellum South Carolina [Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1990], 199.) In 1858 or 1859, on Robert Allston's South Carolina rice plantation, two slaves ”were made to run the gauntlet for taking a hog out of the pen. The whole plantation being shared out of Xmas until they found out the crimnal [sic].” (J. H. Easterby, ed., [Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1990], 199.) In 1858 or 1859, on Robert Allston's South Carolina rice plantation, two slaves ”were made to run the gauntlet for taking a hog out of the pen. The whole plantation being shared out of Xmas until they found out the crimnal [sic].” (J. H. Easterby, ed., The South Carolina Rice Plantation as Revealed in the Papers of Robert F.W. Allston The South Carolina Rice Plantation as Revealed in the Papers of Robert F.W. Allston (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945), 34. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945), 34.

15. Frederick Dougla.s.s, Frederick Dougla.s.s, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Dougla.s.s, An American Slave Narrative of the Life of Frederick Dougla.s.s, An American Slave (Boston, 1845), 7475. This is the first version of Dougla.s.s's autobiography; his description of Christmas is different in subsequent versions. (Boston, 1845), 7475. This is the first version of Dougla.s.s's autobiography; his description of Christmas is different in subsequent versions.

16. For example, one slave owner ”followed the common practice of paying his slaves if they chose to work during the holidays when they would otherwise be free. [In 1853 he] paid several slaves fifty cents a day for splitting rails, hauling cotton and corn, and operating the plantation cotton gin.” Orville W. Taylor, For example, one slave owner ”followed the common practice of paying his slaves if they chose to work during the holidays when they would otherwise be free. [In 1853 he] paid several slaves fifty cents a day for splitting rails, hauling cotton and corn, and operating the plantation cotton gin.” Orville W. Taylor, Negro Slavery in Arkansas Negro Slavery in Arkansas (Durham, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1958), 207. (Durham, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1958), 207.

17. Jones, Jones, Child of Freedom Child of Freedom, 7071.

18. Solomon Northup, Solomon Northup, Twelve Years a Slave Twelve Years a Slave (Auburn & Buffalo, 1854), 214; Irwin Russell, ”Christmas-Night in the Quarters,” in (Auburn & Buffalo, 1854), 214; Irwin Russell, ”Christmas-Night in the Quarters,” in Poems by Irwin Russell Poems by Irwin Russell (New York, 1888), 1 (”high carnival”); the Reverend Bayard R. Hall, D.D., (New York, 1888), 1 (”high carnival”); the Reverend Bayard R. Hall, D.D., Frank Freeman's Barber Shop; A Tale Frank Freeman's Barber Shop; A Tale (New York, 1852), 103104 (”Ah! white man”), 109111 (”times of cramming”). See also Genovese, (New York, 1852), 103104 (”Ah! white man”), 109111 (”times of cramming”). See also Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 574. For one former slave's recollections, see John W. Bla.s.singame, ed., Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977), 652653. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977), 652653.

19. Genovese, Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 578 (John Pierpont). See also Allen Parker, Recollections of Slavery Times Recollections of Slavery Times (Worcester, Ma.s.s., 1895), 67. Several historians report that slave marriages were sometimes ”grouped” at Christmas. See Blake Touchstone, ”Planters and Slave Religion in the Deep South,” in John B. Boles, ed., (Worcester, Ma.s.s., 1895), 67. Several historians report that slave marriages were sometimes ”grouped” at Christmas. See Blake Touchstone, ”Planters and Slave Religion in the Deep South,” in John B. Boles, ed., Masters & Slaves in the House of the Lord: Race and Religion in the American South 17401870 Masters & Slaves in the House of the Lord: Race and Religion in the American South 17401870 (Lexington, Ky., 1988), 124; and Ulrich?. Philips, (Lexington, Ky., 1988), 124; and Ulrich?. Philips, American Negro Slavery American Negro Slavery (New York: Appleton, 1918), 213. This claim is backed by the accounts of ex-slaves (e.g., Northup, (New York: Appleton, 1918), 213. This claim is backed by the accounts of ex-slaves (e.g., Northup, Twelve Years a Slave Twelve Years a Slave, 221222) as well as by plantation records. One plantation diary from 185960 records seven slave marriages at a single Christmas (Easterby, Allston Allston, 453454).

20. Ravitz, ”Pierpont,” 384385; Thomas Bangs Thorpe, ”Cotton and Its Cultivation,” Ravitz, ”Pierpont,” 384385; Thomas Bangs Thorpe, ”Cotton and Its Cultivation,” Harper's New Monthly Magazine Harper's New Monthly Magazine 8 (1854), 447463 (449: ”saturnalia of the Romans”); Hall, 8 (1854), 447463 (449: ”saturnalia of the Romans”); Hall, Frank Freeman Frank Freeman, 102103 (”grand saturnalia”). For a concise account of slave revelry, see Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The ”Invisible Inst.i.tution” in the Antebellum South Slave Religion: The ”Invisible Inst.i.tution” in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 224. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 224.

21. For example, a Florida newspaper argued in 1857 that it was foolish to believe that the ”idle, lounging, roving, drunken, and otherwise mischievous [Christmas] week fits the Negro in the least degree for the discharge of his duties.” (Kenneth M. Stampp, For example, a Florida newspaper argued in 1857 that it was foolish to believe that the ”idle, lounging, roving, drunken, and otherwise mischievous [Christmas] week fits the Negro in the least degree for the discharge of his duties.” (Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Inst.i.tution: Slavery in the AnteBellum South The Peculiar Inst.i.tution: Slavery in the AnteBellum South (New York: Knopf, 1956), 170. (New York: Knopf, 1956), 170.

22. Quoted by Stampp, Quoted by Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 170, from De Bow's Review De Bow's Review 13 (1852), 193194. 13 (1852), 193194.

23. Dougla.s.s, Dougla.s.s, Narrative Narrative, 7576. I would agree with Eugene Genovese in taking issue with Dougla.s.s's claim: ”Dougla.s.s was right in thinking that the holidays ... undermined the revolutionary impulse of the slaves, but he was wrong, I believe, in thinking that the cause lay in the slaves' being trapped in triviality and self-degradation.” Rather, Genovese suggests that the counterrevolutionary effect of such ”big times” was that they developed in slaves a patriarchal sense of ”community with their white folks” (Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 580). On this this issue I disagree with Genovese, and I would add another point: Dougla.s.s was very much a man of bourgeois principles-for him, the loss of self-control through drinking and s.e.xual excess signified a loss of self-respect. Finally, Dougla.s.s's rhetoric was bound to appeal to the temperance-minded audience that const.i.tuted a substantial part of his intended Northern readers.h.i.+p. issue I disagree with Genovese, and I would add another point: Dougla.s.s was very much a man of bourgeois principles-for him, the loss of self-control through drinking and s.e.xual excess signified a loss of self-respect. Finally, Dougla.s.s's rhetoric was bound to appeal to the temperance-minded audience that const.i.tuted a substantial part of his intended Northern readers.h.i.+p.

24. Parker, Parker, Recollections Recollections, 6768; Smedes, Southern Planter Southern Planter, 161162. Alexander Barclay wrote in 1828 about slave life in Jamaica: ”Such dances were formerly common, or I should rather say universal, at Christmas; but of late years have gone much out, owing to an idea impressed on the minds of the negroes, princ.i.p.ally I believe by the missionaries, that the season ought rather to be devoted to religious exercises. It is now considered more becoming to attend the places of wors.h.i.+p, or to have private religious parties among themselves; and in pa.s.sing through a negro village on a Christmas night, it is more common to hear psalm-singing, than the sound of merriment. Alexander Barclay, A Practical View of the Present State of Slavery in the West Indies A Practical View of the Present State of Slavery in the West Indies (3rd ed., London, 1828), 1011. (3rd ed., London, 1828), 1011.

25. Phillips, Phillips, Slavery Slavery, 315; Jacob Stroyer, My Life in the South My Life in the South (Salem, Ma.s.s., 1879), 35. (Salem, Ma.s.s., 1879), 35.

26. Parker, Parker, Recollections Recollections, 6768; see also Phillips, Slavery Slavery, 316318. The music at these revivals was limited to the human voice (and other parts of the body); musical instruments were prohibited for religious reasons.

27. Report by Harriet Ware, Dec. 26, 1862; quoted in Elizabeth Ware Pearson, ed. Report by Harriet Ware, Dec. 26, 1862; quoted in Elizabeth Ware Pearson, ed. Letters from Port Royal, Written at the Time of the Civil War Letters from Port Royal, Written at the Time of the Civil War (Boston, 1906), 124; Sallie Holley, (Boston, 1906), 124; Sallie Holley, A Life for Liberty: Anti-Slavery and Other Letters A Life for Liberty: Anti-Slavery and Other Letters (New York, 1899), 229230. (New York, 1899), 229230.

28. Yetman, Yetman, Selections Selections, 193 (also quoted in Jones, Child of Freedom Child of Freedom, 70). See also Charles L. Perdue, Jr., Thomas E. Barden, and Robert K. Philips, eds., Weevils in the Wheat: Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves Weevils in the Wheat: Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves [Charlottesvile: University Press of Virginia, 1976], 229. Stampp, [Charlottesvile: University Press of Virginia, 1976], 229. Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 166, offers good examples from the 1850s. The gifts on one plantation were unusual enough to become a subject of humorous comment: ”Every woman got a handkerchief to tie up her hair. Every girl got a ribbon, every boy a ballow [i.e., Barlow] knife, and every man a s.h.i.+n plaster. De neighbors call de place, de s.h.i.+n Plaster, Barlow, Bandana place” (Yetman, Selections Selections, 59).

29. Charles Kershaw [a factor] to Charlotte Ann Allston, Charleston, Nov. 29, 1815, in Easterby, Charles Kershaw [a factor] to Charlotte Ann Allston, Charleston, Nov. 29, 1815, in Easterby, Allston Allston, 359. Allston himself, writing in the 1830s, noted: ”the plantation stock to furnish ... a beef for Christmas” (ibid., 257). Ravitz, ”Pierpont,” 384385); Ronald Killion and Charles Waller, eds., Slavery Time When I Was Chillun Down on Marster's Plantation: Interviews with Georgia Slaves Slavery Time When I Was Chillun Down on Marster's Plantation: Interviews with Georgia Slaves (Savannah: Library of Georgia, 1973), 11 (Georgia Baker); Northup, (Savannah: Library of Georgia, 1973), 11 (Georgia Baker); Northup, Twelve Years a Slave Twelve Years a Slave, 215216. See also Sarah Virgil: ”On Fourth of July and Christmas, Marster would give us the biggest kind of to-do. We always had more to eat than you ever saw on them days” (Killion and Waller, Slavery Time Slavery Time, 141.) Slaves often provided their own food and drink, from stock they had raised, made, or sold on their own during the year; sometimes they simply stole the master's food. See, for example, Harriet A. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (ed. by Lydia Maria Child; Boston, 1861 [Cambridge, 1987 reprint; ed. Jean f.a.gan Yellin]), 180181. Compare a Christmas song recorded by Joel Chandler Harris in 1858: ”Ho my Riley! dey eat en dey cram, / En bimeby [by-and-by] ole Miss'll be sendin' out de dram.” (ed. by Lydia Maria Child; Boston, 1861 [Cambridge, 1987 reprint; ed. Jean f.a.gan Yellin]), 180181. Compare a Christmas song recorded by Joel Chandler Harris in 1858: ”Ho my Riley! dey eat en dey cram, / En bimeby [by-and-by] ole Miss'll be sendin' out de dram.”

30. Thomas Bangs Thorpe, ”Christmas in the South,” Thomas Bangs Thorpe, ”Christmas in the South,” Frank Leslie's Ill.u.s.trated Newspaper Frank Leslie's Ill.u.s.trated Newspaper 5 (Dec. 26, 1857), 62. 5 (Dec. 26, 1857), 62.