Part 9 (2/2)

INSt.i.tUTE FOR POLICY INTERACTION (IPI). Established in 2001, this nongovernment organization with no religious or political affiliation aims to advance full democratic partic.i.p.ation of Malawians of all walks of life in the decision-making process that affects their everyday lives. Through research and dissemination of information it seeks to empower Malawians and ensure accountability in government and public service as a whole. It is also acting as an advocacy, a consultancy, and conflict resolution organization, and it regularly publishes research reports on all aspects of governance. Its chairperson is Dr. Nandini Patel, a former academic at Chancellor College, University of Malawi, and its executive director is Rafiq Rajat.

INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (IRDP). Financed largely by the World Bank, this program of the 1960s and early 1970s aimed at bettering the socioeconomic welfare of people in Malawi through projects that incorporated agriculture, health, transport, forestry, and veterinary sectors. The IRDP proved to be expensive to implement, tended to promote the distinction between small-scale producers and the large-scale ones, and did not allow much input in the decision-making process from those it was meant to help. In 1978, the project was replaced by the National Rural Development Program (NRDP).

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF). See ECONOMY.

IRON AGE. See PREHISTORY.

ISLAM. It is estimated that between 12 and 17 percent of the population profess to be Muslims, as compared with about 70 percent who acknowledge Christianity as their religion. Swahili-Arabs brought their Islamic religion with them when they arrived in the area in the 19th century. As tradermerchants they were not active proselytizers; the most numerous conversions occurred after Harry Johnston ended the slave trade in the 1890s. In addition to the Arab-Swahili traders, two Muslim teachers, Shaykh Abdallah Mkwanda and Shaykh Sabiti Ngaunje, are identified with the spread of Islam in Malawi, with most of the conversions taking place among the Yao and the lakeside Chewa.

Conversion to Islam required observance of the Ramadan feast, acceptance of circ.u.mcision, and the imitation of some rituals and prayers. Islam offered an advance in social status beyond traditional faith, and it provided an alternative for those Africans seeking some status among the Europeans. Those converts who became teachers (waalimu) often settled in villages where they earned money tutoring students. Some Muslim villages had Koranic schools, but instruction was often superficial because of poorly prepared teachers.

Islam was viewed by Christian missionaries as a threat. Missionary tracts often wrote about Islamic aggression, which could unite Africans into hostilities. Their concern that Islam would encourage uprisings turned into near hysteria at the outset of World War I when the colonial government was already apprehensive over German attempts to turn Muslim followers against their British rulers. However, as the Germans lost the East African campaign the Muslim scare subsided. The number of Islamic schools and mosques was nevertheless limited by the Protectorate government as a result of a belief that Muslims had encouraged the Chilembwe uprising. Throughout the colonial period, therefore, Islam developed slowly.

The situation has changed since the early 1980s, when money from Islamic countries, mainly Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, helped to establish a major center of learning near Mpemba, outside Blantyre; smaller educational bases were set up in other locations including Balaka and Mangochi and, through such centers, Islamic literature was disseminated. Modern mosques were also built in different parts of the country, including Chitipa, where the Muslim presence had until then been insignificant. In addition, some Malawian Muslims were sent to North Africa and the Middle East to further their educations. Even though Dr. Hastings K. Banda was not particularly friendly to the Islamic world, he allowed the proliferation of Islamic activities on condition that there was no interference in Malawian politics.

Islamic nations gave some financial backing to the United Democratic Front (UDF) Party headed by Bakili Muluzi, the first Muslim to be elected president in a southern African country. During the Muluzi presidency, some Christian denominations complained of the increasing influence of Islam in a country that since the late 19th century has been primarily identified with Christianity. Following the 1999 elections, mosques and Muslims were objects of violent acts in parts of northern Malawi because some people attributed the success of president Muluzi and the UDF in the elections to financial aid emanating from external Islamic sources. The violence was condemned by many, including the Anglican Bishop of Mzuzu, who contributed US$1,000 toward the reconstruction of the mosques.

In the period leading to the 2004 elections, a coalition of Christian denominations opposed the candidature of Bakili Muluzi on many grounds, including what the alliance considered to be the undue influence of Islam in Malawi, which they attributed to him and his international connections. Although in the end Muluzi withdrew his candidature, Muslims in Malawi remain a vocal and powerful community. The Islamic Information Bureau and Radio Islam disseminate information pertaining to Islam and Muslims in Malawi and abroad. Radio Islam also has daily commentaries that often present critiques on society, the Malawi government, and on international affairs. In 2008, the Information Bureau and Radio Islam challenged the census report for stating that there were 1,690,087 Muslims in Malawi as opposed to 10,770,227 Christians, and in 2009, the chairman of the Muslim a.s.sociation of Malawi complained publicly that with two Muslim ministers in the new government of Bingu wa m.u.t.h.arika, Muslims were underrepresented in his 43-person cabinet.

Islamic nongovernmental organizations, such as the Islamic Zakaat Fund, Islamic Relief, Bilal Trust, and Muslim Women's Organization, are active in the country. They have established Islamic educational inst.i.tutions in many parts of the country, including Blantyre, Zomba, Mangochi, and Salima. The Maryam Girls Teachers Training College, established to train female teachers at that primary school level, has received financial a.s.sistance from the Bilal Trust. Foreign funding for numerous Islamic projects has come from, among other countries, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Libya.

J.

JACKSON COMMISSION AND REPORT. This was the report of the Land Commission of 1920, headed by Judge Edward Jackson, which was appointed to inquire into the problem of land, especially in the s.h.i.+re Highlands. From the days of Sir Harry Johnston, European settler farmers had come to occupy the best arable land in the area between Zomba and Mulanje, limiting the ability of the growing African population to expand agricultural activities. After the war, more European settlers arrived, expecting land in the same area; some Europeans, including the older residents, were even applying for land that had been reserved for African use. Meanwhile, it was feared that African unhappiness with the evolving situation would lead to political unrest, and the government was also concerned that many indigenous people would join the labor force across the Zambezi. The Jackson Commission was to recommend solutions to the problem. Among its recommendations was fixed tenure for Africans as opposed to the usual communal owners.h.i.+p of land. It also recommended that, since scarcity of land was a fact, Africans should be allowed tenancy on European estates on favorable terms. However, it also considered labor tenancy as inevitable.

JAFFU, GEORGE. The first Malawian head of civil service and secretary to the president and cabinet, Jaffu was born and raised in Mangoche district. After completing secondary school, he worked in the civil service and, in 1963, became one of the first students to attend the eight-month-long crash course for administrators at the Inst.i.tute of Public Administration, Mpemba. He also spent a year at Oxford University and, upon his return, he occupied several senior positions in the civil service before taking over from Bryan Roberts as secretary to the president and cabinet. In 1975, he was replaced by John Ngwiri, and he joined Lonrho, where he would become its chief executive in Malawi. Later, he became the chairman of the Nico Holdings Ltd.

JALASI. Jalasi is an area in Mangochi district ruled by Yao chiefs of the same name. In the late 19th century, Jalasi most strongly fought off British authority in his area. In 1891, he defeated British troops and, in February 1895, he, Kawinga, and Matapwiri joined to remove the British from the s.h.i.+re. But later that year, he and other chiefs north of Zomba were forced to surrender to colonial rule.

JARDIM, JORGE (19201978). This politically astute Portuguese businessman based in Beira, Mozambique, and a close confidant of the Portuguese leaders.h.i.+p, including Dr. Antonio Salazar, is credited with turning (in late 1961) Dr. Hastings Banda's hard-line views on settler colonialism in southern Africa into accommodation and cooperation. Initially, he secretly met Banda in Blantyre, but later, in 1962, he arranged for the Malawi leader to visit Portugal where relations between the two countries were strengthened. Jardim's plan was to ensure that Banda withdrew support for the Mozambican liberation movements, thereby ensuring that they did not use Malawi as a launching pad for attacks on the Portuguese colony. For his part, Banda was a.s.sured of continued access to Beira and, even more, of building a rail connection with the northern Mozambique port of Nacala. It is said that discussions took place concerning possibilities of ceding part of northern Mozambique to Malawi. Jardim was closely connected with the Resistencia Nacional Mocambicana (RENAMO), and his influence on Banda continued even after he left Mozambique, following the successful war of independence.

JEHOVAH'S WITNESSES. Spreading mainly from the United States through South Africa, this fundamentalist religious sect has been active in Malawi since the early 1900s, and colonial authorities were suspicious of it because of its millennial message, which they feared had subserve implications. Preachers such as Eliot Kamwana Chirwa were watched closely because of their a.s.sociation with the Watch Tower/Jehovah's Witness movement. Adherents rejected any allegiance to political parties or the government, and in Dr. Hastings Banda's Malawi, the Jehovah's Witnesses were banned and followers subjected to violence. As the Malawi Congress Party (MCP) prepared for independence in 1964, members of the Jehovah's Witnesses refused to register as voters and tried to dissuade others from joining the party politics. In Mulanje district, violence broke out between the Jehovah's Witnesses and the Youth Leaguers (see YOUTH). In 1967, the Jehovah's Witnesses were again subject to hara.s.sment. They still refused to join the party, they continued to proselytize those who were not interested, and they attempted to dissuade people from paying taxes. When the Jehovah's Witnesses opposed party efforts to register voters and renew party members.h.i.+p cards, the Malawi government retaliated by allowing Youth Leaguers to a.s.sault Jehovah's Witnesses.

The sect was banned in October 1967 and violence followed, with charges of arson, rape, and a.s.sault levied against Youth Leaguers. Until 1973, the Jehovah's Witnesses were not interfered with, but their continued opposition to the MCP resulted in a wave of persecutions from which nearly 20,000 adherents fled to Zambia and Mozambique. Unfavorable world publicity and the fact that Zambia found them equally unwelcome led to their repatriation. In 1975, about 2,000 were arrested and jailed for belonging to a banned organization. Two years later, nearly all of the Jehovah's Witnesses were released. In 1991, several hundred Mozambican refugees were deported because of their affiliation with the sect. Post-Banda governments have respected freedom of a.s.sociation, including religious affiliation, with the result that the Jehovah's Witnesses have practiced their faith undisturbed and have in fact multiplied in number. See also RELIGION.

JERE, GWAZA. Was a respected nduna (counselor, minister) of Zw.a.n.gendaba, and it was his wise counsel that helped the Ngoni to go through the difficult period following the death of their leader in around 1848. Also around that time, a succession dispute arose, leading to a split among the Ngoni. Gwaza kept the main party together by acting as a regent while the problem was solved and by his presiding over the peaceful emergence of Mhlahlo M'mbelwa Jere as the rightful successor, followed by his installation in the Henga Valley in around 1857.

JERE, ISAIAH MURRAY MOPHO, INKOSANA. A highly respected Ngoni historian, political activist, and church elder, Mopho Jere was born near Ekwendeni, Mzimba district, and educated at the local mission station. In 1928, he became a clerk in the medical department, in Zomba, where he also became secretary of the Representative Committee of the Northern Province Native a.s.sociation (RCNPNA) and as the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian's (CCAP) representative elder in Zomba of Christians from the area dominated by the Livingstonia Mission. In the 1930s, Jere also served as president of the RCNPNA. He died in April 1979.

JERE, MAKAMAKA MAXON, INKOSI M'MBELWA III (?1983). Son of Lazalo Jere, M'mbelwa II, who succeeded his father as inkosi ya makosi (king of kings) in 1960 and guided the northern Ngoni through some of the most tense years in the postcolonial history of Malawi. Following the Cabinet Crisis of 1964, he made sure that peace reigned in his domain, in spite of the number of his subjects who fell victim to President Hastings Banda's abuse of human rights. In 1970, he was appointed to the National Traditional Court, but his refusal to be on the panel hearing the case of Orton and Vera Chirwa on grounds that he was disqualified to do so because Mrs. Chirwa was his subject, displeased the government and the Malawi Congress Party (MCP).

JERE, MBALEKELWA CHIMTUNGA, INKOSI (?1924). Originally known as Mbalekelwa, Chimtunga succeeded his father, M'mbelwa I, in April 1897. Generally considered weak when compared with his father and with Mkhosi Lazalo Jere, his son, who was to succeed him, Chimtunga was the Ngoni ruler when Alfred Sharpe succeeded in bringing the northern Ngoni under British jurisdiction in 1904. In spite of this, the colonial government remained suspicious of the Ngoni, especially their fierce independent mindedness and their unity under Chimtunga. The opportunity to deal with them came at the beginning of World War I when Chimtunga refused a government request to contribute to the war effort by providing carriers and food. Hector C. Macdonald, the local government resident (later known as district commissioner), accused him of siding with the Germans and John Chilembwe. In January 1915, Chimtunga was arrested, dethroned, and exiled to Chiromo in the Lower s.h.i.+re area where he remained under detention until 1920. In the meantime, the government reduced, and then withdrew, financial a.s.sistance to Ngoni chiefs, all of whom had stood by Chimtunga. Much to their displeasure, the government then applied to their area the District Administration (Native) Ordinance of 1912, which meant that the authority of the Ngoni leader was now greatly diminished. Upon his return to Mzimba, his official t.i.tle was that of village headman, a much lesser designation than what he had held before his detention.

JERE, MHLAHLO, M'MBELWA I, INKOSI (c. 18401891). Mhlahlo, as he was known before he took the name, M'mbelwa, was the son of Zw.a.n.gendaba by his wife Munene Nzima who had become the inkosikazi (chief wife) after Soseya, mother of Mputo (Mpezeni), was disgraced because of suspicion that her family of the house of Lompetu wanted to poison her husband. Most likely born in 1840 at Mabili in the vicinity of present day Embangweni during the Ngoni journey northward, M'mbelwa was installed as the successor to his father in 1857 in the area of Ng'onga in the Henga Valley, this time during their southward movement. With him as the new leader, the main Ngoni group moved to several places, including Choma (not far from Mzuzu) and Njuyu before establis.h.i.+ng their headquarters at Edingeni in central Mzimba.

However, even before the emergence of Edingeni, M'mbelwa and his advisors began to organize the Ngoni and the conquered into six chiefdoms, each headed by a descendant of Zw.a.n.gendaba: Mtwalo, Mpherembe, Mzukuzuku, Mabilabo, Chinde, and Mzikubola. M'mbelwa remained as the paramount ruler. They expanded farther and, by the late 1870s, when the Livingstonia missionaries first established contact, their new territory was vast, covering almost all the present-day Mzimba district. It was M'mbelwa who handled the sensitive task of dealing with the missionaries and also had to tackle the more difficult diplomatic problem of fending off the colonial government's determination to establish authority over the Ngoni. By the time of his death in August 1891, the British had still not succeeded in this ambition. M'mbelwa was buried near Njuyu, and his grave site is an official national monument.

JERE, MKHOSI LAZALO, M'MBELWA II, INKOSI (18941959). Son of Chimtunga Jere, Lazalo Mkhosi was born at Mzalangwe in 1894, went to school locally, and then to Khondowe where he pa.s.sed Standard 6, then the highest educational qualification an African could attain in the colony. In 1913, he was employed as a clerk at the district commissioner's office at Mzimba and, from 1917 to 1919, was a clerk at Chiromo in the Lower s.h.i.+re. For the next nine years, he was a clerk in the Rhodesia Native Bureau office at Fort Jameson in Northern Rhodesia. On 11 May 1928, four years after the death of Chimtunga, Ngoni kingmakers installed Mkhosi Lazalo as their traditional leader, with the government t.i.tle of princ.i.p.al headman.

However, this was not enough for the northern Ngoni who, like the Maseko Ngoni in the central and southern provinces, wanted their ruler to a.s.sume the government-recognized t.i.tle of paramount chief. Charles Chinula, Mkhosi Lazalo Jere's princ.i.p.al advisor on matters concerning the colonial government, together with the Mombera Native a.s.sociation, actively campaigned for their chief's status to be changed. They got their wish for, under the Native Authority Ordinance of 1933, the government acknowledged M'mbelwa as the supreme (paramount) chief of the northern Ngoni; similarly, Gomani II became paramount chief in Ntcheu district. In fact, the two were the only traditional authorities in the colony to have this designation. At the suggestion of Rev. Andrew Mkochi and the newly formed M'mbelwa Administrative Council, Lazalo a.s.sumed the t.i.tle inkosi ya makosi (king of kings). The success of the council (193361) was largely due to the guidance and administrative abilities of M'mbelwa II.

Throughout his reign, M'mbelwa II played an active role in matters of regional and national importance. He supported actively the Mombera Native a.s.sociation of which he was president from 1929 to 1931. In 1938, he presented evidence to the Bledisloe Commission, opposing the amalgamation of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland; in 1944, he visited Nyasaland soldiers in the East African Command and, three years later, he went to Salisbury (now Harare) to meet the British monarch; in 195253, he and other chiefs traveled to England to register their opposition to the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. He was a founding member of the Chiefs Council and of the Supreme Council of Chiefs and Congress. Although a recipient of six medals, M'mbelwa II was a strong opponent of colonialism and always identified himself with nationalist sentiments.

JERE, MTWALO I, INKOSI (c. 18381890). Son of Zw.a.n.gendaba and brother of Mhlahlo M'mbelwa, Mtwalo was born around 1838 during the Ngoni's epic journey northward. He would be a pillar of Ngoni stability during the uncertain years before the installation of Mhlahlo as successor to Zw.a.n.gendaba, and he was a reliable advisor to the latter in the period leading to the settlement of the main party in present-day Malawi. a.s.signed the northern section of their new domain, Mtwalo's initial seat was at Ekwendeni, which was replaced by Ezondweni later. Known for his lack of enthusiasm for Christian missionary work and for his hardhearted att.i.tude toward the indigenous peoples among whom the Ngoni settled, Mtwalo died in 1890, only a year before the death of M'mbelwa.

JERE, MUHABI AMON, MTWALO II, INKOSI (c. 18731970). Son of Mtwalo I, of Zw.a.n.gendabas's Muhabi, Jere was born around 1873 at Uswesi, Ekwendeni, and succeeded his father as inkosi (chief) on 15 June 1896. When, in 1886, the Ngoni gave official sanction to Church of Scottish missionaries to embark on their work, Muhabi and his elder brother, Yohane, were among the first pupils to attend the school at Ekwendeni. He went on to Livingstonia, completed Standard 6, and trained as a teacher. Meanwhile, in 1896, he married another Christian convert, Emily Nhlane, daughter of Chipatula Nhlane; not only was he the first Ngoni chief to marry according to Christian rituals, his was also among the first such weddings at Ekwendeni Mission.

In the same year, Amon Jere succeeded his father as inkosi, taking the t.i.tle Mtwalo II. In 1903, he was suspended from the Church of Scotland for taking another wife, but he remained a Christian and later joined the Chipangano, one of the African Initiated Churches, for which he would become an evangelist. Not only did he leave the Scottish missionaries' church, he also stopped teaching and concentrated on his chiefly duties. When the Ngoni country finally came under British rule in 1904, Mtwalo, like all other Ngoni chiefs, began to receive a government stipend. Amon Jere was a founding member of the Mombera Native a.s.sociation and was its president in 192224 and in 192425. When he died on 1 April 1970, he was 97 years old, had lived in precolonial and postcolonial Malawi, and had been inkosi for 74 years. Since he had no children, he was succeeded by his grandnephew (grandson of Yohane), Baiwell Jere, who on his installation in September 1971, a.s.sumed the t.i.tle Mtwalo III.

JERE, TIFAPI, MZUKUZUKU, INKOSI (19202003). A descendant of one of the sons of Zw.a.n.gendaba, Tifapi Jere is one of the five inkosi (chief) under M'mbelwa. Educated at Loudon Mission, this chief, noted as a historian of the Ngoni and for his oratory and organizational abilities, worked as a protocol officer in the Ministry of External Affairs before retiring to his Ephangweni headquarters to concentrate on his chiefly duties. In Hastings Banda's time, Mzukuzuku was frequently the leader of the Mzimba Ingoma dancers who often entertained him and whom the president regarded as the ”real warriors.” Mzukuzuku was a justice in the National Traditional Courts system, which has since then been abolished. He was also a longtime member of the National Monument Commission.

JERE, Zw.a.n.gENDABA, M'MBELWA IV (1955 ). Son of Maxon and grandson of Lazalo Mkhosi Jere, Zw.a.n.gendaba Jere was educated at Edingeni Primary School and Mzuzu Secondary School before working for Press Holdings. In December 1984, he succeeded his father as head of the Ngoni in northern Malawi, a position that is much respected nationally.

JIGGERS. Known as matekenya, this sand flea was first reported in Malawi in the early 1890s and almost certainly entered the region following the trade routes linking Lake Nyasa and East Africa where they had arrived from West Africa. By 1910, jiggers had spread to nearly all parts of Malawi, causing sores and, sometimes, ulcers in the toe and foot areas where the fleas burrowed and deposited their eggs. Jiggers were greatly reduced after World War II when DDT and Gammexane were used to control them, in addition to ticks and mosquitoes. See also DISEASE.

JOHNSON, WILLIAM PERCIVAL (18541928). One of the most remarkable and devoted missionaries to work in southern Africa and considered to be the man behind the success of the Universities' Mission to Central Africa (UMCA) in the Lake Nyasa (Malawi) region, Johnson joined the Anglican mission after graduating from Oxford and left for Africa in 1880. Within a short time, illness forced him back to the Great Britain. He returned in the following year, this time with another missionary, Charles Janson, who died from malaria in February 1882. Two years later, Johnson went to England where he raised money to buy a steamer, the Charles Janson, to be used as a floating mission station for the UMCA. Although in theory stationed at Likoma, he lived on the steamer and traveled the east and southern coasts of the lake most of the year, preaching, teaching, and doing some basic medical work, despite being visually impaired. Besides learning Nyanja, he taught himself Arabic so he could read the Quran, the holy book of some of the people among whom he worked. In 1886, Johnson was joined by Chauncy Maples, who had spent 10 years working on the eastern side of the lake. In 1895, Maples, newly appointed bishop of Nyasa, died in a drowning accident. When in 1901, Johnson added another steamer to those owned by the mission, he called it the Chauncy Maples in honor of his friend. In 1967, the MV Chauncy Maples was redesigned to carry pa.s.sengers and cargo, and it joined the fleet owned and managed by Malawi Railways. It is now decommissioned, although there are efforts to repair it. Author of My African Reminiscences 18751895 (1924), Archdeacon William Johnson died in 1928.

JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY ”HARRY” HAMILTON, GCMG, KCB (18581927). British consul to Mozambique (188991) and Her Majesty's commissioner and consul-general to the territories under British influence to the north of the Zambezi (189196), Johnston was singularly responsible for creating the administrative machinery of the British Protectorate established in the Lake Malawi area in 1891. Born in South London on 12 June 1858, he trained as an artist but had a wide range of serious interests, including botany, zoology, history, geography, and linguistics, and he published extensively in all these fields.

Johnston had worked as consul-general in the Oil Rivers region of Nigeria before a.s.suming his appointment as consul to Mozambique in 1889. In that year, he met Cecil Rhodes who was immediately impressed by the young Johnston. Rhodes hired him to represent his company in the Lake Malawi area, which Johnston was about to visit in his capacity as British Consul to Mozambique (see BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY [BSAC]). On his way to Blantyre, Johnston met and employed Alfred Sharpe as his vice consul. Together with another a.s.sistant, John Nicoll, they entered into several treaties with the Kololo and Yao chiefs. When, in 1891, the Foreign Office designated the area of Malawi as a British Protectorate, Johnston was appointed commissioner and consul-general; and by that time he had gathered a staff devoted to the task of developing an administration. Within a year, he had established European-type courts of justice and several departments, including police, medical, and postal services, as well as engineering and financial units. Johnston first divided the country into four districts, but, in 1893, he reorganized it into 12 administrative units. By the next year, Johnston had an armed force consisting of 370 regulars. His commandant was Major C. A. Edwards, who was a.s.sisted by Captain William Manning. Using his army during a series of several small wars between 1891 and 1895, Johnston extended British rule and established a network of bomas.

During his 1894 administrative leave, Johnston succeeded in securing the financial takeover of the Protectorate by the British Treasury. Until that time, Rhodes paid Johnston 2,000 to begin his work in central Africa and, two years later, Rhodes and his company agreed to pay 1,000 annually to Johnston to maintain a police force. Johnston was also allowed the use of the lake steamers belonging to the African Lakes Company (ALC), a firm in which Rhodes's BSAC owned a controlling interest. In 1893, Rhodes increased his subsidy to 17,500 annually in exchange for BSAC absorption of all Crown rights to land in Malawi. This financial hold of the BSAC finally ended with an agreement with the Foreign Office (1895) wherein the Treasury a.s.sumed full financial control over the area.

The Johnston administration was much preoccupied with raising local revenue to help run the government and with working out a land policy for the Protectorate. In 189293, Johnston, a.s.sisted by Sharpe and Lt. Bertram Sclater of the Royal Engineers, reviewed every land and mineral claim for authenticity and proper compensation. Funds to finance the new administration included those internally raised, such as postal fees, import duties, license fees, stamp duties, and hut taxes. The latter tax, of three s.h.i.+llings per year, was first imposed in the southern region but, by 1896, it was imposed in all districts of Malawi where British rule obtained.

Johnston was not always popular with the European missionaries, planters, and merchants who had preceded the British administration. Traders and planters, unaccustomed to any government regulations for years, objected to paying taxes and to the enforcement of laws. With the exception of Dr. Robert Laws, for whom he had great respect, Johnston disliked most missionaries. Missions, too, had enjoyed exercising ”governmental” powers for several years, but now British rule had made them subordinate to Commissioner Johnston. Johnston left the British Protectorate in 1896. A prolific writer and fine naturalist, he ill.u.s.trated his encyclopedic British Central Africa published in 1897. Previously, during his 1894 leave in England, he had produced a Blue Book detailing the first three years of his administration. In 1923, he published his autobiography, The Story of My Life, and it was one of the 14 books that he wrote. Johnston died on 31 August 1927.

JONES, ARTHUR CREECH (18911964). Founder of the Fabian Bureau, Jones was the Labour Party's colonial secretary in the postWorld War II era. In 1948, he met with his friend, Hastings K. Banda, who was practicing medicine in England, and with a deputation of the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC). As a result of that meeting, construction funds were made available for the Dedza Secondary School and Domasi Teacher's College. Meanwhile, Creech-Jones a.s.sured Malawians that they would not be transferred into any a.s.sociation or federation. Those promises were not maintained by James Giffiths, who in 1950 succeeded him as secretary for the colonies.

JONES, SIR GLYN SMALLWOOD, GCMG, MBE (19081992). Formerly senior servant in Northern Rhodesia, Jones served as chief secretary to the Nyasaland government (196061), governor (196164), and governor general (196466). Jones and Hastings K. Banda established a good working relations.h.i.+p after the release of Malawi Congress Party (MCP) members, including Banda himself, detained in prison during Operation Sunrise in 1959. In July 1964, Glyn Jones became governor general and, during the Cabinet Crisis of 1964, he advised Prime Minister Banda on how to solve the rift instead of resigning from office; he also advised Banda to seek a parliamentary vote of confidence, which he was duly given. In 1965, Glyn Jones demanded that more humane treatment be given to political prisoners detained by Banda as a consequence of the Cabinet Crisis. On his retirement from colonial service in 1966, Sir Glyn Jones worked for the Malawi

<script>