Part 7 (2/2)

7 Such biases persist Such biases persist A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that serves to increase the likelihood of the behavior that produces it. A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that serves to increase the likelihood of the behavior that produces it.

2 How to Win Friends and Influence People 12 In his book In his book The Language Instinct Pinker, S (1994) The Language Instinct Pinker, S (1994) The Language Instinct The Language Instinct. Perennial, New York, NY.

14 Such increasingly complicated Such increasingly complicated Humphrey, N (1992) Humphrey, N (1992) A History of the Mind A History of the Mind. Simon and Schuster, New York, NY; Mithen, S (1996) The Prehistory of the Mind:The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion, and Science The Prehistory of the Mind:The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion, and Science. Thames and Hudson, England; Klein, RG (2002) The Dawn of Human Culture The Dawn of Human Culture. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.

16 Many scholars agree Many scholars agree Diamond, JM (1992) Diamond, JM (1992) The Third Chimpanzee:The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal The Third Chimpanzee:The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal. Harper Collins, New York, NY; Deacon, T (1997) The Symbolic Species The Symbolic Species. W. W. Norton, New York, NY.

17 In cognitive science circles In cognitive science circles For a recent review of the representation problem, see Pylyshyn, ZW (2002) Mental imagery: in search of a theory. For a recent review of the representation problem, see Pylyshyn, ZW (2002) Mental imagery: in search of a theory. Behavioral Brain Sciences Behavioral Brain Sciences 25, no.2: 157-182. 25, no.2: 157-182.

17 But this is premature But this is premature Example used by Hauser, MD (2000) Example used by Hauser, MD (2000) Wild Minds:What Animals Really Think Wild Minds:What Animals Really Think. Henry Holt and Company, New York.

18 How did proto-emotions How did proto-emotions See Dunbar, R (1998) See Dunbar, R (1998) Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA; Deacon, T (1997) The Symbolic Species The Symbolic Species. W. W. Norton, New York, NY; Pinker, The Language Instinct The Language Instinct.

18 We will employ a more modern We will employ a more modern See Striedter, GF (1998) Progress in the study of brain evolution: from speculative theories to testable hypotheses. See Striedter, GF (1998) Progress in the study of brain evolution: from speculative theories to testable hypotheses. The Anatomical Record (New Anatomy), The Anatomical Record (New Anatomy), 253: 105-112; and relevant chapters in Gould, SJ (2002) 253: 105-112; and relevant chapters in Gould, SJ (2002) The Structure of Evolutionary Theory The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

18 ”The human race began to talk ”The human race began to talk Cited in Locke, Cited in Locke, The Child's Path to Spoken Language The Child's Path to Spoken Language.

20 In humans this exchange In humans this exchange For a review, see ibid.; Owens, RE (2000) For a review, see ibid.; Owens, RE (2000) Language Development: An Introduction Language Development: An Introduction. Pearson Allyn and Bacon, New York, NY.

20 Detailed experiments following Detailed experiments following Stern, DN, Spieker, S, Barnett, RK, MacKain, K (1983) The prosody of maternal speech: infant age and context related changes. Stern, DN, Spieker, S, Barnett, RK, MacKain, K (1983) The prosody of maternal speech: infant age and context related changes. Journal of Child and Language, Journal of Child and Language, 10(1): 1-15; Halle, PA, de Boysson-Bardies, B, Vihman, MM (1991) Beginnings of prosodic organization: intonation and duration patterns of disyllables produced by j.a.panese and French infants. 10(1): 1-15; Halle, PA, de Boysson-Bardies, B, Vihman, MM (1991) Beginnings of prosodic organization: intonation and duration patterns of disyllables produced by j.a.panese and French infants. Language and Speech, Language and Speech, 34, 299-318. 34, 299-318.

20 ”Communication is successful” ”Communication is successful” See Locke, See Locke, The Child's Path to Spoken Language The Child's Path to Spoken Language.

22 For instance, synthesized sounds For instance, synthesized sounds Murray, IR,Arnott, JL (1993) Toward the simulation of emotion in synthetic speech: a review of the literature on human vocal emotion. Murray, IR,Arnott, JL (1993) Toward the simulation of emotion in synthetic speech: a review of the literature on human vocal emotion. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 93(2): 1097-108; Collier,WG, Hubbard,TL (2001) Musical scales and evaluations of happiness and awkwardness: effects of pitch, direction, and scale mode. 93(2): 1097-108; Collier,WG, Hubbard,TL (2001) Musical scales and evaluations of happiness and awkwardness: effects of pitch, direction, and scale mode. American Journal of Psychology, American Journal of Psychology, 114(3): 355-375. 114(3): 355-375.

22 Developmental psychologist Andrew Meltzoff Developmental psychologist Andrew Meltzoff For an overview of these experiments see Gopnick,A, Meltzoff,AN, Kuhl, PK (1999) For an overview of these experiments see Gopnick,A, Meltzoff,AN, Kuhl, PK (1999) The Scientist in the Crib: Minds, Brains, and How Children Learn The Scientist in the Crib: Minds, Brains, and How Children Learn. William Morrow, New York.

23 Studies have also shown that infants Studies have also shown that infants For a recent review of this literature see Turati, C, Simion, F, Milani, I, Umilta, C (2002) Newborns' preference for faces: what is crucial? For a recent review of this literature see Turati, C, Simion, F, Milani, I, Umilta, C (2002) Newborns' preference for faces: what is crucial? Developmental Psychology, Developmental Psychology, 38(6): 875-882. 38(6): 875-882.

3 What Makes Sammy Dance?

26 By the time he was twenty-four years old By the time he was twenty-four years old Published reports of case studies typically use a patient's initials or some other descriptor in an effort to maintain their anonymity. Heath, RG (1972) Pleasure and brain activity in man. Deep and surface electroencephalograms during o.r.g.a.s.m. Published reports of case studies typically use a patient's initials or some other descriptor in an effort to maintain their anonymity. Heath, RG (1972) Pleasure and brain activity in man. Deep and surface electroencephalograms during o.r.g.a.s.m. Journal of Nervous Mental Disorders, Journal of Nervous Mental Disorders, 154(1): 3-18. 154(1): 3-18.

26 Impressed by the work of Olds Impressed by the work of Olds Olds, J, Milner, P (1954) Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain. Olds, J, Milner, P (1954) Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain. Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology, Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology, 47(6): 419-427. 47(6): 419-427.

26 ”They function in an almost continuous ”They function in an almost continuous Quoted in Hooper, J,Teresi, D (1986) Quoted in Hooper, J,Teresi, D (1986) The Three-Pound Universe The Three-Pound Universe. Macmillan Publis.h.i.+ng Company, New York.

26 Electrodes and cannulas Electrodes and cannulas Olds, J, Milner, P (1954) Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain. Olds, J, Milner, P (1954) Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain. Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology, Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology, 47(6): 419-427. 47(6): 419-427.

29 In the fifty years since In the fifty years since For recent reviews see Berridge, KC (2002) Pleasure of the brain. For recent reviews see Berridge, KC (2002) Pleasure of the brain. Brain and Cognition, Brain and Cognition, 52(1): 106-128; Wise, RA (2002) Brain reward circuitry: insights from unsensed incentives. 52(1): 106-128; Wise, RA (2002) Brain reward circuitry: insights from unsensed incentives. Neuron, Neuron, 36(2): 229-240; Kelley, AE, Berridge, KC (2002) The neuroscience of natural rewards: relevance to addictive drugs. 36(2): 229-240; Kelley, AE, Berridge, KC (2002) The neuroscience of natural rewards: relevance to addictive drugs. Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Neuroscience, 22(9): 3312-3320. 22(9): 3312-3320.

29 As the circuit continued As the circuit continued Olds, J (1976) Brain stimulation and the motivation of behavior. Olds, J (1976) Brain stimulation and the motivation of behavior. Progress in Brain Research, Progress in Brain Research, 45: 401-426; Berridge, KC (2002) Pleasure of the brain. 45: 401-426; Berridge, KC (2002) Pleasure of the brain. Brain and Cognition, Brain and Cognition, 52(1), 106-128; Wise, RA (2002) Brain reward circuitry: insights from unsensed incentives. 52(1), 106-128; Wise, RA (2002) Brain reward circuitry: insights from unsensed incentives. Neuron, Neuron, 36(2): 229-240; Kelley, AE, Berridge, KC (2002) The neuroscience of natural rewards: relevance to addictive drugs. 36(2): 229-240; Kelley, AE, Berridge, KC (2002) The neuroscience of natural rewards: relevance to addictive drugs. Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Neuroscience, 22(9): 3312-3320. 22(9): 3312-3320.

30 Behavioral scientists have used Behavioral scientists have used Woodward, DJ, Chang, JY, Janak, P, Azarov, A, Anstrom, K (2000) Activity patterns in mesolimbic regions in rats during operant tasks for reward. Woodward, DJ, Chang, JY, Janak, P, Azarov, A, Anstrom, K (2000) Activity patterns in mesolimbic regions in rats during operant tasks for reward. Progress in Brain Research, Progress in Brain Research, 126: 303-322. 126: 303-322.

31 Understanding how a.s.sociative learning Understanding how a.s.sociative learning For examples see Eichenbaum, H (2001) The hippocampus and declarative memory: cognitive mechanisms and neural codes. For examples see Eichenbaum, H (2001) The hippocampus and declarative memory: cognitive mechanisms and neural codes. Behavioral Brain Research, Behavioral Brain Research, 127(1-2): 199-207; Ha.s.selmo, ME, McClelland, JL (1999) Neural models of memory. 127(1-2): 199-207; Ha.s.selmo, ME, McClelland, JL (1999) Neural models of memory. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 9(2): 184-188; Wallenstein, GV, Eichenbaum, H, Ha.s.selmo, ME (1998) The hippocampus as an a.s.sociator of discontiguous events. 9(2): 184-188; Wallenstein, GV, Eichenbaum, H, Ha.s.selmo, ME (1998) The hippocampus as an a.s.sociator of discontiguous events. Trends in Neuroscience, Trends in Neuroscience, 21(8): 317-323; Kesner, RP, Gilbert, PE,Wallenstein, GV (2000) Testing neural network models of memory with behavioral experiments. 21(8): 317-323; Kesner, RP, Gilbert, PE,Wallenstein, GV (2000) Testing neural network models of memory with behavioral experiments. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 10(2): 260-265. 10(2): 260-265.

31 Rats often learn to avoid Rats often learn to avoid Parker, LA (2003) Taste avoidance and taste aversion: evidence for two different processes. Parker, LA (2003) Taste avoidance and taste aversion: evidence for two different processes. Learning and Behavior, Learning and Behavior, 31(2): 165-172; Maren, S (2001) Neurobiology of Pavlovian fear conditioning. 31(2): 165-172; Maren, S (2001) Neurobiology of Pavlovian fear conditioning. Annual Review of Neuroscience, Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24: 897-931. 24: 897-931.

32 ”The dancing chicken is exhibiting” ”The dancing chicken is exhibiting” Breland, K, Breland, M (1961) The misbehavior of organisms. Breland, K, Breland, M (1961) The misbehavior of organisms. American Psychologist, American Psychologist, 16: 681-684. 16: 681-684.

32 In fact, sugars rated In fact, sugars rated Sclafani, A, Fanizza, LJ, Azzara,AV (1999) Conditioned flavor avoidance, preference, and indifference produced by intragastric infusions of galactose, glucose, and fructose in rats. Sclafani, A, Fanizza, LJ, Azzara,AV (1999) Conditioned flavor avoidance, preference, and indifference produced by intragastric infusions of galactose, glucose, and fructose in rats. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 67(2): 227-234. 67(2): 227-234.

37 Others are activated by stress, learning Others are activated by stress, learning For a review see Wallenstein, GV (2003) For a review see Wallenstein, GV (2003) Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood. Commonwealth Press, Boston.

43 At present, there are several controversial At present, there are several controversial Slezak, M, Pfrieger, FW (2003) New roles for astrocytes: regulation of CNS synaptogenesis. Slezak, M, Pfrieger, FW (2003) New roles for astrocytes: regulation of CNS synaptogenesis. Trends in Neuroscience, Trends in Neuroscience, 26(10): 531-535;Adams, P, c.o.x, K (2002) A new interpretation of thalamocortical circuitry. 26(10): 531-535;Adams, P, c.o.x, K (2002) A new interpretation of thalamocortical circuitry. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences, 357(1428): 1767-1779; Grossman,AW, Churchill, JD, Bates, KE, Kleim, JA, Greenough, WT (2002) A brain adaptation view of plasticity: is synaptic plasticity an overly limited concept? 357(1428): 1767-1779; Grossman,AW, Churchill, JD, Bates, KE, Kleim, JA, Greenough, WT (2002) A brain adaptation view of plasticity: is synaptic plasticity an overly limited concept? Progress in Brain Research, Progress in Brain Research, 138: 91-108. 138: 91-108.

46 From culture to culture From culture to culture Sugarman, L (2001) Sugarman, L (2001) Lifespan Development: Theories, Concepts and Interventions Lifespan Development: Theories, Concepts and Interventions. Psychology Press, New York.

4 The Pleasure of Touch 49 By the time the world met him By the time the world met him Ruckel, I (2002) Ruckel, I (2002) Abandoned for Life: The Incredible Story of One Romanian Orphan Abandoned for Life: The Incredible Story of One Romanian Orphan. JB Information Station Publishers, St. Louis.

50 As late as 1915 As late as 1915 Chapin, HD (1915) A plea for accurate statistics in children's inst.i.tutions. Chapin, HD (1915) A plea for accurate statistics in children's inst.i.tutions. Transactions of the American Pediatric Society, Transactions of the American Pediatric Society, 27: 180. 27: 180.

50 It is important to note It is important to note Holt, LE (1935) Holt, LE (1935) The Care and Feeding of Children The Care and Feeding of Children (15th edition). Appleton-Century, New York. (15th edition). Appleton-Century, New York.

51 The pediatric wards of the famed Bellevue The pediatric wards of the famed Bellevue Brennemann, J (1932) The infant ward. Brennemann, J (1932) The infant ward. American Journal of Diseases of Children, American Journal of Diseases of Children, 43: 577. 43: 577.

51 ”If they continued hurting themselves ”If they continued hurting themselves Ruckel, I (2002) Ruckel, I (2002) Abandoned for Life: The Incredible Story of One Romanian Orphan Abandoned for Life: The Incredible Story of One Romanian Orphan. JB Information Station Publishers, St. Louis.

53 For touch to be perceived For touch to be perceived Falk, D, Gibson, KR (2001) Falk, D, Gibson, KR (2001) Evolutionary Anatomy of the Primate Cerebral Cortex Evolutionary Anatomy of the Primate Cerebral Cortex. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

53 Each of these sensory modalities Each of these sensory modalities For a general review of the touch system, see Rowe, MJ, Iwamura, Y (2000) For a general review of the touch system, see Rowe, MJ, Iwamura, Y (2000) Somatosensory Processing: From Single Neuron to Brain Imaging Somatosensory Processing: From Single Neuron to Brain Imaging. Taylor & Francis, New York.

54 A very active area of research A very active area of research Fox, K, Glazewski, S, Schulze, S (2000) Plasticity and stability of somatosensory maps in thalamus and cortex. Fox, K, Glazewski, S, Schulze, S (2000) Plasticity and stability of somatosensory maps in thalamus and cortex. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 10(4): 494-497; Jones, EG (2000) Cortical and subcortical contributions to activity-dependent plasticity in primate somatosensory cortex. 10(4): 494-497; Jones, EG (2000) Cortical and subcortical contributions to activity-dependent plasticity in primate somatosensory cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23: 1-37; Rauschecker, JP (2002) Cortical map plasticity in animals and humans. 23: 1-37; Rauschecker, JP (2002) Cortical map plasticity in animals and humans. Progress in Brain Research, Progress in Brain Research, 138:73-88. 138:73-88.

54 Psychologist William Greenough Psychologist William Greenough Klintsova, AY, Greenough, WT (1999) Synaptic plasticity in cortical systems. Klintsova, AY, Greenough, WT (1999) Synaptic plasticity in cortical systems. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 9(2): 203-208; Greenough, WT (1987) Mechanisms of behaviorally-elicited and electrically-elicited long-term potentiation. 9(2): 203-208; Greenough, WT (1987) Mechanisms of behaviorally-elicited and electrically-elicited long-term potentiation. International Journal of Neurology, International Journal of Neurology, 21: 137-144. 21: 137-144.

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