Part 8 (1/2)

54 Experience-expectant stimuli Experience-expectant stimuli In Barnard, KE, Brazelton, TB (1990) In Barnard, KE, Brazelton, TB (1990) Touch: The Foundation of Experience Touch: The Foundation of Experience. International University Press, Madison, CT.

55 Thus, whisker sensation Thus, whisker sensation Kossut, M (1998) Experience-dependent changes in function and anatomy of adult barrel cortex. Kossut, M (1998) Experience-dependent changes in function and anatomy of adult barrel cortex. Experimental Brain Research, Experimental Brain Research, 123 (1-2): 110-116; Glazewski, S (1998) Experience-dependent changes in vibrissae evoked responses in the rodent barrel cortex. 123 (1-2): 110-116; Glazewski, S (1998) Experience-dependent changes in vibrissae evoked responses in the rodent barrel cortex. Acta Neurobiologica Exp (Wars), Acta Neurobiologica Exp (Wars), 58(4): 309-320; Fox, K (2002) Anatomical pathways and molecular mechanisms for plasticity in the barrel cortex. 58(4): 309-320; Fox, K (2002) Anatomical pathways and molecular mechanisms for plasticity in the barrel cortex. Neuroscience, Neuroscience, 111(4): 799-814. 111(4): 799-814.

55 For instance, when mice are placed For instance, when mice are placed For a review of these studies see van Praag, H, Kempermann, G, Gage, FH (2000) Neural consequences of environmental enrichment. For a review of these studies see van Praag, H, Kempermann, G, Gage, FH (2000) Neural consequences of environmental enrichment. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1(3): 191-198; Rosenzweig, MR, Bennett, EL (1996) Psychobiology of plasticity: effects of training and experience on brain and behavior. 1(3): 191-198; Rosenzweig, MR, Bennett, EL (1996) Psychobiology of plasticity: effects of training and experience on brain and behavior. Behavioral Brain Research, Behavioral Brain Research, 78(1): 57-65. 78(1): 57-65.

56 Rather, the preferences for certain Rather, the preferences for certain Victora, MD,Victora, CG, Barros, FC (1990) Cross-cultural differences in developmental rates: a comparison between British and Brazilian children. Victora, MD,Victora, CG, Barros, FC (1990) Cross-cultural differences in developmental rates: a comparison between British and Brazilian children. Child Care Health and Development, Child Care Health and Development, 6(3): 151-164; Chen, ST (1989) Comparison between the development of Malaysian and Denver children. 6(3): 151-164; Chen, ST (1989) Comparison between the development of Malaysian and Denver children. Journal of the Singapore Pediatric Society, Journal of the Singapore Pediatric Society, 31(3-4): 178-185; Lejarraga, H, Pascucci, MC, Krupitzky, S, Kelmansky, D, Bianco, A, Martinez, E,Tibaldi, F, Cameron, N, (2002) Psych.o.m.otor development in Argentinean children aged 0-5 years. 31(3-4): 178-185; Lejarraga, H, Pascucci, MC, Krupitzky, S, Kelmansky, D, Bianco, A, Martinez, E,Tibaldi, F, Cameron, N, (2002) Psych.o.m.otor development in Argentinean children aged 0-5 years. Pediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, Pediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 16(1): 47-60. 16(1): 47-60.

57 Some recent studies have shown Some recent studies have shown Eriksson, PS (2003) Neurogenesis and its implications for regeneration in the adult brain. Eriksson, PS (2003) Neurogenesis and its implications for regeneration in the adult brain. Journal of Rehabilitative Medicine, Journal of Rehabilitative Medicine, (41 Suppl): 17-19; Kozorovitskiy, Y, Gould, E (2003) Adult neurogenesis: a mechanism for brain repair? (41 Suppl): 17-19; Kozorovitskiy, Y, Gould, E (2003) Adult neurogenesis: a mechanism for brain repair? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5): 721-732; Eisch,AJ (2002) Adult neurogenesis: implications for psychiatry. 25(5): 721-732; Eisch,AJ (2002) Adult neurogenesis: implications for psychiatry. Progress in Brain Research, Progress in Brain Research, 138: 315-342. 138: 315-342.

60 For instance, children who have delayed For instance, children who have delayed Rine, RM, Cornwall, G, Gan, K, LoCascio, C, O'Hare, T, Robinson, E, Rice, M (2000) Evidence of progressive delay of motor development in children with sensorineural hearing loss and concurrent vestibular dysfunction. Rine, RM, Cornwall, G, Gan, K, LoCascio, C, O'Hare, T, Robinson, E, Rice, M (2000) Evidence of progressive delay of motor development in children with sensorineural hearing loss and concurrent vestibular dysfunction. Perceptual and Motor Skills, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 90(3 Pt 2): 1101-1112. 90(3 Pt 2): 1101-1112.

60 The stress hormones The stress hormones See Wallenstein, GV (2003) See Wallenstein, GV (2003) Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood. Commonwealth Press, Boston.

61 Moreover, animals that are given Moreover, animals that are given For review see Wallenstein, GV (2003) For review see Wallenstein, GV (2003) Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood. Commonwealth Press, Boston; Gilmer,WS, McKinney,WT (2003) Early experience and depressive disorders: human and non-human primate studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, Journal of Affective Disorders, 75(2): 97-113. 75(2): 97-113.

61 For instance, gentle daily ma.s.sage For instance, gentle daily ma.s.sage For a review see Fleming, AS, O'Day, DH, Kraemer, GW (1999) Neurobiology of mother-infant interactions: experience and central nervous system plasticity across development and generations. For a review see Fleming, AS, O'Day, DH, Kraemer, GW (1999) Neurobiology of mother-infant interactions: experience and central nervous system plasticity across development and generations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 23(5): 673-685; Carvell, GE, Simons, DJ (1996) Abnormal tactile experience early in life disrupts active touch. 23(5): 673-685; Carvell, GE, Simons, DJ (1996) Abnormal tactile experience early in life disrupts active touch. Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Neuroscience, 16(8): 2750-2757. 16(8): 2750-2757.

61 Although there have not been many controlled Although there have not been many controlled See articles in Barnard, KE, Brazelton, TB (1990) See articles in Barnard, KE, Brazelton, TB (1990) Touch: The Foundation of Experience Touch: The Foundation of Experience. International University Press, Madison, CT.

62 The twin who received the motion The twin who received the motion For a comprehensive review of early studies see Ottenbacher, KJ, Petersen, P (1984) The efficacy of vestibular stimulation as a form of specific sensory enrichment. Quant.i.tative review of the literature. For a comprehensive review of early studies see Ottenbacher, KJ, Petersen, P (1984) The efficacy of vestibular stimulation as a form of specific sensory enrichment. Quant.i.tative review of the literature. Clinical Pediatrics (Phila.), Clinical Pediatrics (Phila.), 23(8): 428-433. 23(8): 428-433.

5 In Praise of Odors 65 This is true for humans, primates This is true for humans, primates Tanabe, T, Iino, M, Takagi, SF (1975) Discrimination of odors in olfactory bulb, pyriform-amygdaloid areas, and orbitofrontal cortex of the monkey. Tanabe, T, Iino, M, Takagi, SF (1975) Discrimination of odors in olfactory bulb, pyriform-amygdaloid areas, and orbitofrontal cortex of the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology, Journal of Neurophysiology, 38: 1284-1296; Tanabe,T,Yarita, H, Iino, M, Oos.h.i.+ma, Y, Takagi, SF (1975) An olfactory projection area in orbitofrontal cortex of the monkey. 38: 1284-1296; Tanabe,T,Yarita, H, Iino, M, Oos.h.i.+ma, Y, Takagi, SF (1975) An olfactory projection area in orbitofrontal cortex of the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology, Journal of Neurophysiology, 38: 1269-1283; Pritchard,TC, Hamilton, RB, Morse, JR, Norgren, R (1986) Projections of thalamic gustatory and lingual areas in the monkey, Macaca fascicularis. 38: 1269-1283; Pritchard,TC, Hamilton, RB, Morse, JR, Norgren, R (1986) Projections of thalamic gustatory and lingual areas in the monkey, Macaca fascicularis. Journal of Comparative Neurology, Journal of Comparative Neurology, 244: 213-228; Zatorre, RJ, Jones-Gotman, M, Evans,AC, Meyers, E (1992) Functional localization and lateralization of human olfactory cortex. 244: 213-228; Zatorre, RJ, Jones-Gotman, M, Evans,AC, Meyers, E (1992) Functional localization and lateralization of human olfactory cortex. Nature, Nature, 60: 339-340. 60: 339-340.

65 Experiments have shown that when humans Experiments have shown that when humans Zatorre, RJ, Jones-Gotman, M, Evans, AC, Meyers, E (1992) Functional localization and lateralization of human olfactory cortex. Zatorre, RJ, Jones-Gotman, M, Evans, AC, Meyers, E (1992) Functional localization and lateralization of human olfactory cortex. Nature, Nature, 60: 339-340; Small, DM, Jones-Gotman, M, Zatorre, RJ, Petrides, M, Evans, AC (1997) A role for the right anterior temporal lobe in taste quality recognition. 60: 339-340; Small, DM, Jones-Gotman, M, Zatorre, RJ, Petrides, M, Evans, AC (1997) A role for the right anterior temporal lobe in taste quality recognition. Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Neuroscience, 17: 5136-5142; Small, DM, Jones-Gotman, M, Zatorre, RJ, Petrides, M, Evans, AC (1997) Flavor processing: more than the sum of its parts. 17: 5136-5142; Small, DM, Jones-Gotman, M, Zatorre, RJ, Petrides, M, Evans, AC (1997) Flavor processing: more than the sum of its parts. Neuroreport, Neuroreport, 8: 3913-3917. 8: 3913-3917.

66 In her book In her book A Natural History Ackerman, D (1991) A Natural History Ackerman, D (1991) A Natural History of the Senses A Natural History of the Senses. Vintage Books, New York.

66 One theory suggests that during the Devonian One theory suggests that during the Devonian Watson, L (2000) Watson, L (2000) Jacobson's Organ and the Remarkable Nature of Smell Jacobson's Organ and the Remarkable Nature of Smell. W. W. Norton & Company, New York.

69 By the twenty-eighth week, Kai's placenta By the twenty-eighth week, Kai's placenta Psychologist Julie Mennella first tested this idea by taking amniotic fluid samples from women who were undergoing a routine amniocentesis and had ingested either garlic or placebo capsules approximately forty-five minutes before the procedure.The odor of the amniotic fluid from women who consumed garlic was judged, by independent evaluators, as smelling stronger and more like garlic than the fluid from those who consumed only saline (Mennella, JA, Johnson,A, Beuchamp, GK [1995] Garlic ingestion by pregnant women alters the odor of amniotic fluid. Psychologist Julie Mennella first tested this idea by taking amniotic fluid samples from women who were undergoing a routine amniocentesis and had ingested either garlic or placebo capsules approximately forty-five minutes before the procedure.The odor of the amniotic fluid from women who consumed garlic was judged, by independent evaluators, as smelling stronger and more like garlic than the fluid from those who consumed only saline (Mennella, JA, Johnson,A, Beuchamp, GK [1995] Garlic ingestion by pregnant women alters the odor of amniotic fluid. Chemical Senses, Chemical Senses, 20: 207). 20: 207).

69 In fact, scientists have speculated that odor In fact, scientists have speculated that odor Eliot, L (2000) Eliot, L (2000) What's Going on in There? How the Brain and Mind Develop in the First Five Years of Life What's Going on in There? How the Brain and Mind Develop in the First Five Years of Life. Bantam Books, New York.

70 Injections of simple saline solution Injections of simple saline solution Smotherman, WP, Robinson, SR (1988) Behavior of rat fetuses following chemical or tactile stimulation. Smotherman, WP, Robinson, SR (1988) Behavior of rat fetuses following chemical or tactile stimulation. Behavioral Neuroscience, Behavioral Neuroscience, 102: 24-34. 102: 24-34.

70 After birth, the rats that were exposed After birth, the rats that were exposed Pedersen, PE, Bla.s.s, EM (1982) Prenatal and postnatal determinants of the first sucking episode in albino rats. Pedersen, PE, Bla.s.s, EM (1982) Prenatal and postnatal determinants of the first sucking episode in albino rats. Development Psychobiology, Development Psychobiology, 15: 349-355. 15: 349-355.

70 If their amniotic fluid is scented If their amniotic fluid is scented Smotherman,WP (1982) Odor aversion learning by the rat fetus. Smotherman,WP (1982) Odor aversion learning by the rat fetus. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 29: 769-771. 29: 769-771.

70 Experiments performed in culturally diverse Experiments performed in culturally diverse Varendi, H, et al. (1996) Attractiveness of amniotic fluid odor: evidence of prenatal olfactory learning? Varendi, H, et al. (1996) Attractiveness of amniotic fluid odor: evidence of prenatal olfactory learning? Acta Paediatrica, Acta Paediatrica, 85: 1223-1227. 85: 1223-1227.

71 Newborns also cry less and show Newborns also cry less and show Varendi, H, et al. (1998) Soothing effect of amniotic fluid smell in newborn infants. Varendi, H, et al. (1998) Soothing effect of amniotic fluid smell in newborn infants. Early Human Development, Early Human Development, 51: 47-55. 51: 47-55.

71 Within hours after birth, a breast-fed Within hours after birth, a breast-fed Schaal, B (1988) Olfaction in infants and children: development and functional perspectives. Schaal, B (1988) Olfaction in infants and children: development and functional perspectives. Chemical Senses, Chemical Senses, 13: 145. 13: 145.

71 Infants born to anise-consuming Infants born to anise-consuming Schaal, B, Marlier, L, Soussigan, R (2000) Human fetuses learn odours from their pregnant mother's diet. Schaal, B, Marlier, L, Soussigan, R (2000) Human fetuses learn odours from their pregnant mother's diet. Chemical Senses, Chemical Senses, 25: 729-737. 25: 729-737.

72 Researchers have found that newborns Researchers have found that newborns Mennella, JA, Beauchamp, GK (1991) Olfactory preferences in children and adults. In Mennella, JA, Beauchamp, GK (1991) Olfactory preferences in children and adults. In The Human Sense of Smell, The Human Sense of Smell, Lang, D, Dory, RL, Breipohl, W (eds.). Springer-Verlag, NY. Lang, D, Dory, RL, Breipohl, W (eds.). Springer-Verlag, NY.

72 Some of the most popular smells include strawberry Some of the most popular smells include strawberry Schmidt, HJ, Beauchamp, GK (1988) Adult-like preferences and aversions in three-year-old children. Schmidt, HJ, Beauchamp, GK (1988) Adult-like preferences and aversions in three-year-old children. Child Development, Child Development, 59: 1138. 59: 1138.

74 Within four months Within four months Russell, MJ, et al. (1980) Olfactory influences on the human menstrual cycle. Russell, MJ, et al. (1980) Olfactory influences on the human menstrual cycle. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 13: 737. 13: 737.

74 The answer came The answer came Empson, J (1977) Periodicity in body temperature in man. Empson, J (1977) Periodicity in body temperature in man. Experientia, Experientia, 33: 342. 33: 342.

77 Each person tested was brought Each person tested was brought Wedekind, C, Furi, S (1997) Body odour preferences in men and women: do they aim for specific MHC combinations or simply heterozygosity? Wedekind, C, Furi, S (1997) Body odour preferences in men and women: do they aim for specific MHC combinations or simply heterozygosity? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences, 22: 1471-1479. 22: 1471-1479.

77 In 2001,Wedekind's group In 2001,Wedekind's group Milinski, M, Wedekind, C (2001) Evidence for MHC-CORRELATED perfume preferences in humans. Milinski, M, Wedekind, C (2001) Evidence for MHC-CORRELATED perfume preferences in humans. Behavioral Ecology, Behavioral Ecology, 12: 140-149. 12: 140-149.

6 For the Love of Chocolate 80 Spouted, teapot-shaped vessels Spouted, teapot-shaped vessels Hurst,WJ,Tarka, SM Jr., Powis,TG,Valdez, F Jr., Hester,TR (2002) Cacao usage by the earliest Maya civilization. Hurst,WJ,Tarka, SM Jr., Powis,TG,Valdez, F Jr., Hester,TR (2002) Cacao usage by the earliest Maya civilization. Nature, Nature, 418: 289-290. 418: 289-290.

82 Placing a small amount of liquid Placing a small amount of liquid Barr, RG et al. (1994) Effects of intra-oral sucrose on crying, mouthing, and hand-mouth contact in newborn and six-week-old infants. Barr, RG et al. (1994) Effects of intra-oral sucrose on crying, mouthing, and hand-mouth contact in newborn and six-week-old infants. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 36: 608. 36: 608.

82 The key to unraveling this mystery The key to unraveling this mystery di Tomaso, E, Beltramo, M, Piomelli, D (1996) Brain cannibinoids in chocolate. di Tomaso, E, Beltramo, M, Piomelli, D (1996) Brain cannibinoids in chocolate. Nature, Nature, 382: 677-678. 382: 677-678.

84 In a very real sense, the opioid In a very real sense, the opioid Molecular evidence has shown that the opioid system is highly conserved across anatomically diverse species and hence very old within the framework of hominid evolution. For instance, the gene sequence that codes the development of mu opioid receptors is essentially the same in humans, bovine chickens, bullfrogs, striped ba.s.s, thresher sharks, and the Pacific hagfish (Li, X, Keith, DE, Evans, CJ [1996] Mu opioid receptorlike sequences are present throughout vertebrate evolution. Molecular evidence has shown that the opioid system is highly conserved across anatomically diverse species and hence very old within the framework of hominid evolution. For instance, the gene sequence that codes the development of mu opioid receptors is essentially the same in humans, bovine chickens, bullfrogs, striped ba.s.s, thresher sharks, and the Pacific hagfish (Li, X, Keith, DE, Evans, CJ [1996] Mu opioid receptorlike sequences are present throughout vertebrate evolution. Journal of Molecular Evolution, Journal of Molecular Evolution, 43: 179-184.) 43: 179-184.) 84 Study after study has shown that in humans Study after study has shown that in humans For examples, see Facchinetti, F et al. (1986) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity and relations.h.i.+ps to affective state. For examples, see Facchinetti, F et al. (1986) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity and relations.h.i.+ps to affective state. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 36: 937-940; Melchior, JC, et al. (1991) Immunoreactive beta-endorphin increases after an aspartame chocolate drink in healthy subjects. 36: 937-940; Melchior, JC, et al. (1991) Immunoreactive beta-endorphin increases after an aspartame chocolate drink in healthy subjects. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 50: 941-944. 50: 941-944.

85 At least two independent studies have found that obese At least two independent studies have found that obese Facchinetti, F, et al. (1986) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity and relations.h.i.+ps to affective state. Facchinetti, F, et al. (1986) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity and relations.h.i.+ps to affective state. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 36: 937-940; Scavo, D, et al. (1990) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity is not related to affective state. 36: 937-940; Scavo, D, et al. (1990) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity is not related to affective state. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 48: 681-683. 48: 681-683.

85 Hence, attachment behaviors depend on opioid Hence, attachment behaviors depend on opioid Moles, A, Kieffer, BL, D'Amato, FR (2004) Deficit in attachment behavior in mice lacking the mu-opioid receptor gene. Moles, A, Kieffer, BL, D'Amato, FR (2004) Deficit in attachment behavior in mice lacking the mu-opioid receptor gene. Science, Science, 304: 1983-1986. 304: 1983-1986.

87 These include tongue protrusions to reject These include tongue protrusions to reject Steiner, JE (1973) The gustofacial response: Observation on normal and anencephalic newborn infants. In Steiner, JE (1973) The gustofacial response: Observation on normal and anencephalic newborn infants. In Fourth Symposium on Oral Sensation and Perception Fourth Symposium on Oral Sensation and Perception. JF Bosma (ed.), U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bethesda, MD.

88 Studies performed during this time show that fetuses Studies performed during this time show that fetuses Mistretta, CM, Bradley, RM (1975) Taste and swallowing in utero: a discussion of fetal sensory function. Mistretta, CM, Bradley, RM (1975) Taste and swallowing in utero: a discussion of fetal sensory function. British Medical Bulletin, British Medical Bulletin, 31: 80-84. 31: 80-84.

88 Likewise, rats born to mothers who consume Likewise, rats born to mothers who consume The implications of this learning process for understanding and treating addiction will be discussed in chapter 9. The implications of this learning process for understanding and treating addiction will be discussed in chapter 9.

89 But this has changed with the discovery that simply putting a fatty But this has changed with the discovery that simply putting a fatty Mattes, RD (2001) The taste of fat elevates postprandial triacylglycerol. Mattes, RD (2001) The taste of fat elevates postprandial triacylglycerol. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 74: 343-348. 74: 343-348.

90 These findings are probably no surprise These findings are probably no surprise Drewnowski, A, Greenwood, MR (1983) Cream and sugar: human preferences for high-fat foods. Drewnowski, A, Greenwood, MR (1983) Cream and sugar: human preferences for high-fat foods. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 30: 629-633. 30: 629-633.

90 Michael Crawford of the Inst.i.tute Michael Crawford of the Inst.i.tute Cunnane, SC, Crawford, MA (2003) Survival of the fattest: fat babies were the key to evolution of the large human brain. Cunnane, SC, Crawford, MA (2003) Survival of the fattest: fat babies were the key to evolution of the large human brain. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 136(1): 17-26. 136(1): 17-26.

92 They suggest the most dramatic increase They suggest the most dramatic increase Ibid. Ibid.