Part 29 (1/2)

Notes.

Prologue: The Power of Ideas 1. 1. My mother is a talented artist specializing in watercolor paintings. My father was a noted musician, conductor of the Bell Symphony, founder and former chairman of the Queensborough College Music Department. My mother is a talented artist specializing in watercolor paintings. My father was a noted musician, conductor of the Bell Symphony, founder and former chairman of the Queensborough College Music Department.

2. 2. The Tom Swift Jr. series, which was launched in 1954 by Grosset and Dunlap and written by a series of authors under the pseudonym Victor Appleton, continued until 1971. The teenage Tom Swift, along with his pal Bud Barclay, raced around the universe exploring strange places, conquering bad guys, and using exotic gadgets such as house-sized s.p.a.cecraft, a s.p.a.ce station, a flying lab, a cycloplane, an electric hydrolung, a diving seacopter, and a repellatron (which repelled things; underwater, for example, it would repel water, thus forming a bubble in which the boys could live). The Tom Swift Jr. series, which was launched in 1954 by Grosset and Dunlap and written by a series of authors under the pseudonym Victor Appleton, continued until 1971. The teenage Tom Swift, along with his pal Bud Barclay, raced around the universe exploring strange places, conquering bad guys, and using exotic gadgets such as house-sized s.p.a.cecraft, a s.p.a.ce station, a flying lab, a cycloplane, an electric hydrolung, a diving seacopter, and a repellatron (which repelled things; underwater, for example, it would repel water, thus forming a bubble in which the boys could live).

The first nine books in the series are Tom Swift and His Flying Lab Tom Swift and His Flying Lab (1954), (1954), Tom Swift and His Jetmarine Tom Swift and His Jetmarine (1954), (1954), Tom Swift and His Rocket s.h.i.+p Tom Swift and His Rocket s.h.i.+p (1954), (1954), Tom Swift and His Giant Robot Tom Swift and His Giant Robot (1954), (1954), Tom Swift and His Atomic Earth Blaster Tom Swift and His Atomic Earth Blaster (1954), (1954), Tom Swift and His Outpost in s.p.a.ce Tom Swift and His Outpost in s.p.a.ce (1955), (1955), Tom Swift and His Diving Seacopter Tom Swift and His Diving Seacopter (1956), (1956), Tom Swift in the Caves of Nuclear Fire Tom Swift in the Caves of Nuclear Fire (1956), (1956), and Tom Swift on the Phantom Satellite and Tom Swift on the Phantom Satellite (1956). (1956).

3. 3. The program was called Select. Students filled out a three-hundred-item questionnaire. The computer software, which contained a database of about two million pieces of information on three thousand colleges, selected six to fifteen schools that matched the student's interests, background, and academic standing. We processed about ten thousand students on our own and then sold the program to the publis.h.i.+ng company Harcourt, Brace, and World. The program was called Select. Students filled out a three-hundred-item questionnaire. The computer software, which contained a database of about two million pieces of information on three thousand colleges, selected six to fifteen schools that matched the student's interests, background, and academic standing. We processed about ten thousand students on our own and then sold the program to the publis.h.i.+ng company Harcourt, Brace, and World.

4. 4. The Age of Intelligent Machines The Age of Intelligent Machines, published in 1990 by MIT Press, was named Best Computer Science Book by the a.s.sociation of American Publishers. The book explores the development of artificial intelligence and predicts a range of philosophic, social, and economic impacts of intelligent machines. The narrative is complemented by twenty-three articles on AI from thinkers such as Sherry Turkle, Douglas Hofstadter, Marvin Minsky, Seymour Papert, and George Gilder. For the entire text of the book, see bating totalitarian and fundamentalist belief systems and ideologies, and creating knowledge in all of its diverse forms: music, art, literature, science, and technology. I regard a Singularitarian as someone who understands the transformations that are coming in this century and who has reflected on their implications for his or her own life.

2. 2. We will examine the doubling rates of computation in the next chapter. Although the number of transistors per unit cost has doubled every two years, transistors have been getting progressively faster, and there have been many other levels of innovation and improvement. The overall power of computation per unit cost has recently been doubling every year. In particular, the amount of computation (in computations per second) that can be brought to bear to a computer chess machine doubled every year during the 1990s. We will examine the doubling rates of computation in the next chapter. Although the number of transistors per unit cost has doubled every two years, transistors have been getting progressively faster, and there have been many other levels of innovation and improvement. The overall power of computation per unit cost has recently been doubling every year. In particular, the amount of computation (in computations per second) that can be brought to bear to a computer chess machine doubled every year during the 1990s.

3. 3. John von Neumann, paraphrased by Stanislaw Ulam, ”Tribute to John von Neumann,” John von Neumann, paraphrased by Stanislaw Ulam, ”Tribute to John von Neumann,” Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 64.3, pt. 2 (May 1958): 149. Von Neumann (19031957) was born in Budapest into a Jewish banking family and came to Princeton University to teach mathematics in 1930. In 1933 he became one of the six original professors in the new Inst.i.tute for Advanced Study in Princeton, where he stayed until the end of his life. His interests were far ranging: he was the primary force in defining the new field of quantum mechanics; along with coauthor Oskar Morgenstern, he wrote 64.3, pt. 2 (May 1958): 149. Von Neumann (19031957) was born in Budapest into a Jewish banking family and came to Princeton University to teach mathematics in 1930. In 1933 he became one of the six original professors in the new Inst.i.tute for Advanced Study in Princeton, where he stayed until the end of his life. His interests were far ranging: he was the primary force in defining the new field of quantum mechanics; along with coauthor Oskar Morgenstern, he wrote Theory of Games and Economic Behavior Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, a text that transformed the study of economics; and he made significant contributions to the logical design of early computers, including building MANIAC (Mathematical a.n.a.lyzer, Numeral Integrator, and Computer) in the late 1930s.

Here is how Oskar Morgenstern described von Neumann in the obituary ”John von Neumann, 19031957,” in the Economic Journal Economic Journal (March 1958: 174): ”Von Neumann exercised an unusually large influence upon the thought of other men in his personal relations....His stupendous knowledge, the immediate response, the unparalleled intuition held visitors in awe. He would often solve their problems before they had finished stating them. His mind was so unique that some people have asked themselves-they too eminent scientists-whether he did not represent a new stage in human mental development.” (March 1958: 174): ”Von Neumann exercised an unusually large influence upon the thought of other men in his personal relations....His stupendous knowledge, the immediate response, the unparalleled intuition held visitors in awe. He would often solve their problems before they had finished stating them. His mind was so unique that some people have asked themselves-they too eminent scientists-whether he did not represent a new stage in human mental development.”

4. 4. See notes 20 and 21 in chapter 2. See notes 20 and 21 in chapter 2.

5. 5. The conference was held February 1921, 2003, in Monterey, California. Among the topics covered were stem-cell research, biotechnology, nanotechnology, cloning, and genetically modified food. For a list of books recommended by conference speakers, see /books.htm. The conference was held February 1921, 2003, in Monterey, California. Among the topics covered were stem-cell research, biotechnology, nanotechnology, cloning, and genetically modified food. For a list of books recommended by conference speakers, see /books.htm.

6. 6. The Internet, as measured by the number of nodes (servers), was doubling every year during the 1980s but was only tens of thousands of nodes in 1985. This grew to tens of millions of nodes by 1995. By January 2003, the Internet Software Consortium (patible with our existence; if they were not, we would not be here to observe them. One of the catalysts for the development of the principle is the study of constants, such as the gravitational constant and the electromagnetic-coupling constant. If the values of these constants were to stray beyond a very narrow range, intelligent life would not be possible in our universe. For example, if the electromagnetic-coupling constant were stronger, there would be no bonding between electrons and other atoms. If it were weaker, electrons could not be held in orbit. In other words, if this single constant strayed outside an extremely narrow range, molecules would not form. Our universe, then, appears to proponents of the anthropic principle to be fine-tuned for the evolution of intelligent life. (Detractors such as Victor Stenger claim the fine-tuning is not so fine after all; there are compensatory mechanisms that would support a wider window for life to form under different conditions.) At the broadest level, the anthropic principle states that the fundamental constants of physics must be compatible with our existence; if they were not, we would not be here to observe them. One of the catalysts for the development of the principle is the study of constants, such as the gravitational constant and the electromagnetic-coupling constant. If the values of these constants were to stray beyond a very narrow range, intelligent life would not be possible in our universe. For example, if the electromagnetic-coupling constant were stronger, there would be no bonding between electrons and other atoms. If it were weaker, electrons could not be held in orbit. In other words, if this single constant strayed outside an extremely narrow range, molecules would not form. Our universe, then, appears to proponents of the anthropic principle to be fine-tuned for the evolution of intelligent life. (Detractors such as Victor Stenger claim the fine-tuning is not so fine after all; there are compensatory mechanisms that would support a wider window for life to form under different conditions.) The anthropic principle comes up again in the context of contemporary cosmology theories that posit multiple universes (see notes 8 and 9, below), each with its own set of laws. Only in a universe in which the laws allowed thinking beings to exist could we be here asking these questions.One of the seminal texts in the discussion is John Barrow and Frank Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988). See also Steven Weinberg, ”A Designer Universe?” at l Education/ essay_weinberg.cfm. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988). See also Steven Weinberg, ”A Designer Universe?” at l Education/ essay_weinberg.cfm.

8. 8. According to some cosmological theories, there were multiple big bangs, not one, leading to multiple universes (parallel multiverses or ”bubbles”). Different physical constants and forces apply in the different bubbles; conditions in some (or at least one) of these bubbles support carbon-based life. See Max Tegmark, ”Parallel Universes,” According to some cosmological theories, there were multiple big bangs, not one, leading to multiple universes (parallel multiverses or ”bubbles”). Different physical constants and forces apply in the different bubbles; conditions in some (or at least one) of these bubbles support carbon-based life. See Max Tegmark, ”Parallel Universes,” Scientific American Scientific American (May 2003): 4153; Martin Rees, ”Exploring Our Universe and Others,” (May 2003): 4153; Martin Rees, ”Exploring Our Universe and Others,” Scientific American Scientific American (December 1999): 7883; Andrei Linde, ”The Self-Reproducing Inflationary Universe,” (December 1999): 7883; Andrei Linde, ”The Self-Reproducing Inflationary Universe,” Scientific American Scientific American (November 1994): 4855. (November 1994): 4855.

9. 9. The ”many worlds” or multiverse theory as an interpretation of quantum mechanics was developed to solve a problem presented by quantum mechanics and then has been combined with the anthropic principle. As summarized by Quentin Smith: The ”many worlds” or multiverse theory as an interpretation of quantum mechanics was developed to solve a problem presented by quantum mechanics and then has been combined with the anthropic principle. As summarized by Quentin Smith: A serious difficulty a.s.sociated with the conventional or Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics is that it cannot be applied to the general relativity s.p.a.ce-time geometry of a closed universe. A quantum state of such a universe is describable as a wave function with varying spatial-temporal amplitude; the probability of the state of the universe being found at any given point is the square of the amplitude of the wave function at that point. In order for the universe to make the transition from the superposition of many points of varying probabilities to one of these points-the one in which it actually is-a measuring apparatus must be introduced that collapses the wave function and determines the universe to be at that point. But this is impossible, for there is nothing outside the universe, no external measuring apparatus, that can collapse the wave function.A possible solution is to develop an interpretation of quantum mechanics that does not rely on the notion of external observation or measurement that is central to the Copenhagen interpretation. A quantum mechanics can be formulated that is internal to a closed system.It is such an interpretation that Hugh Everett developed in his 1957 paper, ”Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics.” Each point in the superposition represented by the wave function is regarded as actually containing one state of the observer (or measuring apparatus) and one state of the system being observed. Thus ”with each succeeding observation (or interaction), the observer state 'branches' into a number of different states. Each branch represents a different outcome of the measurement and the corresponding eigenstate for the object-system state. All branches exist simultaneously in the superposition after any given sequence of observations.”Each branch is causally independent of each other branch, and consequently no observer will ever be aware of any ”splitting” process. The world will seem to each observer as it does in fact seem.Applied to the universe as a whole, this means that the universe is regularly dividing into numerous different and causally independent branches, consequent upon the measurement-like interactions among its various parts. Each branch can be regarded as a separate world, with each world constantly splitting into further worlds.Given that these branches-the set of universes-will include ones both suitable and unsuitable for life, Smith continues, ”At this point it can be stated how the strong anthropic principle in combination with the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics can be used in an attempt to resolve the apparent problem mentioned at the beginning of this essay. The seemingly problematic fact that a world with intelligent life is actual, rather than one of the many lifeless worlds, is found not to be a fact at all. If worlds with life and without life are both actual, then it is not surprising that this world is actual but is something to be expected.”Quentin Smith, ”The Anthropic Principle and Many-Worlds Cosmologies,” Australasian Journal of Philosophy Australasian Journal of Philosophy 63.3 (September 1985), available at /the_anthropic_ principle_and_many-worlds_cosmologies.htm. 63.3 (September 1985), available at /the_anthropic_ principle_and_many-worlds_cosmologies.htm.

10. 10. See chapter 4 for a complete discussion of the brain's self-organizing principles and the relations.h.i.+p of this principle of operation to pattern recognition. See chapter 4 for a complete discussion of the brain's self-organizing principles and the relations.h.i.+p of this principle of operation to pattern recognition.

11. 11. With a ”linear” plot (where all graph divisions are equal), it would be impossible to visualize all of the data (such as billions of years) in a limited s.p.a.ce (such as a page of this book). A logarithmic (”log”) plot solves that by plotting the order of magnitude of the values rather than the actual values, allowing you to see a wider range of data. With a ”linear” plot (where all graph divisions are equal), it would be impossible to visualize all of the data (such as billions of years) in a limited s.p.a.ce (such as a page of this book). A logarithmic (”log”) plot solves that by plotting the order of magnitude of the values rather than the actual values, allowing you to see a wider range of data.

12. 12. Theodore Modis, professor at DUXX, Graduate School in Business Leaders.h.i.+p in Monterrey, Mexico, attempted to develop a ”precise mathematical law that governs the evolution of change and complexity in the Universe.” To research the pattern and history of these changes, he required an a.n.a.lytic data set of significant events where the events equate to major change. He did not want to rely solely on his own list, because of selection bias. Instead, he compiled thirteen multiple independent lists of major events in the history of biology and technology from these sources: Theodore Modis, professor at DUXX, Graduate School in Business Leaders.h.i.+p in Monterrey, Mexico, attempted to develop a ”precise mathematical law that governs the evolution of change and complexity in the Universe.” To research the pattern and history of these changes, he required an a.n.a.lytic data set of significant events where the events equate to major change. He did not want to rely solely on his own list, because of selection bias. Instead, he compiled thirteen multiple independent lists of major events in the history of biology and technology from these sources: Carl Sagan, The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence (New York: Ballantine Books, 1989). Exact dates provided by Modis. (New York: Ballantine Books, 1989). Exact dates provided by Modis.American Museum of Natural History. Exact dates provided by Modis.The data set ”important events in the history of life” in the Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica.Educational Resources in Astronomy and Planetary Science (ERAPS), University of Arizona, ethel.as.arizona.edu/~collins/astro/subiects/evolve-26.html.Paul D. Boyer, biochemist, winner of the 1997 n.o.bel Prize, private communication.Exact dates provided by Modis.J. D. Barrow and J. Silk, ”The Structure of the Early Universe,” Scientific American Scientific American 242.4 (April 1980): 11828. 242.4 (April 1980): 11828.J. Heidmann, Cosmic Odyssey: Observatoir de Paris Cosmic Odyssey: Observatoir de Paris, trans. Simon Mitton (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1989).J.W. Schopf, ed., Major Events in the History of Life Major Events in the History of Life, symposium convened by the IGPP Center for the Study of Evolution and the Origin of Life, 1991 (Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 1991).Phillip Tobias, ”Major Events in the History of Mankind,” chap. 6 in Schopf, Major Events in the History of Life Major Events in the History of Life.David Nelson, ”Lecture on Molecular Evolution I,” drnelson.utmem.edu/evolution.html, and ”Lecture Notes for Evolution II,” drnelson.utmem.edu/evolution2.html.G. Burenhult, ed., The First Humans: Human Origins and History to 10,000 BC The First Humans: Human Origins and History to 10,000 BC (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993). (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993).D. Johanson and B. Edgar, From Lucy to Language From Lucy to Language (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996). (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).R. Coren, The Evolutionary Trajectory: The Growth of Information in the History and Future of Earth The Evolutionary Trajectory: The Growth of Information in the History and Future of Earth, World Futures General Evolution Studies (Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, 1998).

These lists date from the 1980s and 1990s, with most covering the known history of the universe, while three focus on the narrower period of hominoid evolution. The dates used by some of the older lists are imprecise, but it is the events themselves, and the relative locations of these events in history, that are of primary interest.Modis then combined these lists to find cl.u.s.ters of major events, his ”canonical milestones.” This resulted in 28 canonical milestones from the 203 milestone events in the lists. Modis also used another independent list by Coren as a check to see if it corroborated his methods. See T. Modis, ”Forecasting the Growth of Complexity and Change,” Technological Forecasting and Social Change Technological Forecasting and Social Change 69.4 (2002); ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/tmodis/TedWEB.htm. 69.4 (2002); ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/tmodis/TedWEB.htm.

13. 13. Modis notes that errors can arise from variations in the size of lists and from variations in dates a.s.signed to events (see T. Modis, ”The Limits of Complexity and Change,” Modis notes that errors can arise from variations in the size of lists and from variations in dates a.s.signed to events (see T. Modis, ”The Limits of Complexity and Change,” The Futurist The Futurist [MayJune 2003], ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/tmodis/Futurist.pdf). So he used cl.u.s.ters of dates to define his canonical milestones. A milestone represents an average, with known errors a.s.sumed to be the standard deviation. For events without multiple sources, he ”arbitrarily a.s.sign[ed] the average error as error.” Modis also points out other sources of error-cases where precise dates are unknown or where there is the possibility of inappropriate a.s.sumption of equal importance for each data point-which are not caught in the standard deviation. [MayJune 2003], ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/tmodis/Futurist.pdf). So he used cl.u.s.ters of dates to define his canonical milestones. A milestone represents an average, with known errors a.s.sumed to be the standard deviation. For events without multiple sources, he ”arbitrarily a.s.sign[ed] the average error as error.” Modis also points out other sources of error-cases where precise dates are unknown or where there is the possibility of inappropriate a.s.sumption of equal importance for each data point-which are not caught in the standard deviation.

Note that Modis's date of 54.6 million years ago for the dinosaur extinction is not far enough back.

14. 14. Typical interneuronal reset times are on the order of five milliseconds, which allows for two hundred digital-controlled a.n.a.log transactions per second. Even accounting for multiple nonlinearities in neuronal information processing, this is on the order of a million times slower than contemporary electronic circuits, which can switch in less than one nanosecond (see the a.n.a.lysis of computational capacity in chapter 2). Typical interneuronal reset times are on the order of five milliseconds, which allows for two hundred digital-controlled a.n.a.log transactions per second. Even accounting for multiple nonlinearities in neuronal information processing, this is on the order of a million times slower than contemporary electronic circuits, which can switch in less than one nanosecond (see the a.n.a.lysis of computational capacity in chapter 2).

15. 15. A new a.n.a.lysis by Los Alamos National Lab researchers of the relative concentrations of radioactive isotopes in the world's only known natural nuclear reactor (at Oklo in Gabon, West Africa) has found a decrease in the fine-structure constant, or alpha (the speed of light is inversely proportional to alpha), over two billion years. That translates into a small increase in the speed of light, although this finding clearly needs to be confirmed. See ”Speed of Light May Have Changed Recently,” A new a.n.a.lysis by Los Alamos National Lab researchers of the relative concentrations of radioactive isotopes in the world's only known natural nuclear reactor (at Oklo in Gabon, West Africa) has found a decrease in the fine-structure constant, or alpha (the speed of light is inversely proportional to alpha), over two billion years. That translates into a small increase in the speed of light, although this finding clearly needs to be confirmed. See ”Speed of Light May Have Changed Recently,” New Scientist New Scientist, June 30, 2004, lnews/news.jsp?id=ns99996092. See also /releases/2005/05/050512120842.htm.

16. 16. Stephen Hawking declared at a scientific conference in Dublin on July 21, 2004, that he had been wrong in a controversial a.s.sertion he made thirty years ago about black holes. He had said information about what had been swallowed by a black hole could never be retrieved from it. This would have been a violation of quantum theory, which says that information is preserved. ”I'm sorry to disappoint science fiction fans, but if information is preserved there is no possibility of using black holes to travel to other universes,” he said. ”If you jump into a black hole, your ma.s.s energy will be returned to our universe, but in a mangled form, which contains the information about what you were like, but in an unrecognizable state.” See Dennis Overbye, ”About Those Fearsome Black Holes? Never Mind,” New York Times, July 22, 2004. Stephen Hawking declared at a scientific conference in Dublin on July 21, 2004, that he had been wrong in a controversial a.s.sertion he made thirty years ago about black holes. He had said information about what had been swallowed by a black hole could never be retrieved from it. This would have been a violation of quantum theory, which says that information is preserved. ”I'm sorry to disappoint science fiction fans, but if information is preserved there is no possibility of using black holes to travel to other universes,” he said. ”If you jump into a black hole, your ma.s.s energy will be returned to our universe, but in a mangled form, which contains the information about what you were like, but in an unrecognizable state.” See Dennis Overbye, ”About Those Fearsome Black Holes? Never Mind,” New York Times, July 22, 2004.

17. 17. An event horizon is the outer boundary, or perimeter, of a spherical region surrounding the singularity (the black hole's center, characterized by infinite density and pressure). Inside the event horizon, the effects of gravity are so strong that not even light can escape, although there is radiation emerging from the surface owing to quantum effects that cause particle-antiparticle pairs to form, with one of the pair being pulled into the black hole and the other being emitted as radiation (so-called Hawking radiation). This is the reason why these regions are called ”black holes,” a term invented by Professor John Wheeler. Although black holes were originally predicted by German astrophysicist Kurt Schwarzschild in 1916 based on Einstein's theory of general relativity, their existence at the centers of galaxies has only recently been experimentally demonstrated. For further reading, see Kimberly Weaver, ”The Galactic Odd Couple,” . June 10, 2003; Jean-Pierre Lasota, ”Unmasking Black Holes,” An event horizon is the outer boundary, or perimeter, of a spherical region surrounding the singularity (the black hole's center, characterized by infinite density and pressure). Inside the event horizon, the effects of gravity are so strong that not even light can escape, although there is radiation emerging from the surface owing to quantum effects that cause particle-antiparticle pairs to form, with one of the pair being pulled into the black hole and the other being emitted as radiation (so-called Hawking radiation). This is the reason why these regions are called ”black holes,” a term invented by Professor John Wheeler. Although black holes were originally predicted by German astrophysicist Kurt Schwarzschild in 1916 based on Einstein's theory of general relativity, their existence at the centers of galaxies has only recently been experimentally demonstrated. For further reading, see Kimberly Weaver, ”The Galactic Odd Couple,” . June 10, 2003; Jean-Pierre Lasota, ”Unmasking Black Holes,” Scientific American Scientific American (May 1999): 4147; Stephen Hawking, (May 1999): 4147; Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes (New York: Bantam, 1988). (New York: Bantam, 1988).

18. 18. Joel Smoller and Blake Temple, ”Shock-Wave Cosmology Inside a Black Hole,” Joel Smoller and Blake Temple, ”Shock-Wave Cosmology Inside a Black Hole,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100.20 (September 30, 2003): 1121618. 100.20 (September 30, 2003): 1121618.

19. 19. Vernor Vinge, ”First Word,” Vernor Vinge, ”First Word,” Omni Omni (January 1983): 10. (January 1983): 10.

20. 20. Ray Kurzweil, Ray Kurzweil, The Age of Intelligent Machines The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 1989). (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 1989).