Part 14 (1/2)

14 Abbing (1989) 126

15 Cf Towse (1993)

16 Frank and Cook (1995) 200-9

17 Cowen (1998) 131 challenges Frank and Cook's thesis of cultural impoverish-ment He defends the position that cultural diversity increases

18 The fact that essential qualities cannot be measured does not exclude that cer-tain qualities, which , for instance Cf Hamlen (1991) and Towse (1993)

19 In this context Rosen (1981) 846 uses the word 'charis

20 Authenticity in the arts was treated in chapter 1 in relation to the assumed sa-credness of art

21 Everybody is necessarily creative and authentic at ti solutions in a proble probleest that people have no urge to confore to conform and the need for distinction, ie, the wish to be 'somebody who differs from everybody else' are powerful impulses in many people's lives In our culture, however, the latter has probably gained h it is true that by strongly identifying with artists or stars people apparently become less of an au-thentic individual theree of sy run they help in the formation of identities These identities naturally exist in relation to the 'identities' of the social groups or subcultures somebody takes part in After all, distinction can only exist in a social environment

23 Frank and Cook (1995) 29, eh entities other than per-sons may compete in winner-takes-all markets, identiable individuals are al-h

24 Abbing (1989) 124-135, Frey and Pommerehne (1989) 137-164, Jeffri (1989), Towse (1993), Elstad (1997) and Rengers and Madden (2000) Many other studies, which conrm low incomes and a skewed distribution of incomes, were reviewed by Throsby (1994), O'Brien (1997) and Wassall and Alper (1992) A different opinion comes from Filer (1986), who states that artists earn only a lit-tle less (not more than 10 less) than comparable professionals, but his use of census data has been criticized, for instance by Menger (1999) 553 See also note 213

25 Baumol and Bowen (1966) 103

26 Frey and Pommerehne (1989) 152-55

27 ”Surveys (and ofcial statistics) on artists show they are younger, better quali-ed in the sense of having higher levels of educational achieveer hours than other professionals” Towse (2001) 485

28 Menger (1999) 545

29 Throsby (1994) 18

30 Alper, Wassal et al (1996)

31 Throsby (1996)

32 Menger (1999) 545 Earlier Peacock, Shoesmith et al (1982) 39 noted that be-tween 1970 and 1980 in Britain the real value of perfor in established companies decreased

33 On the basis of census data, Cowen and Grier (1996) 14-20 discovered that in-cohtly between 1970 and 1990 However, in the census data, people are categorized by their primary source of income Many artists earnthe incoroup already selected on a nancial criterion can lead to incorrect or irrelevant results

34 Throsby (1996) 228

35 Meulenbeek, Brouwer et al (2000) 36 Fifty percent earned less than 100 Euros a , in the sense that they earned less than the equivalent of social security benets in the Netherlands Unlike in some other surveys, the respondents had no incentive to hide their ille-gal earnings

36 Rengers and Madden (2000) 339 discovered that in Australia artists with low art inco weeks, while artists with intermediate incoroup probably consists of predominantly non-ne arts artists

37 Meulenbeek, Brouwer et al (2000) 24

38 Struyk and Rengers (2000) 24

39 Median incoroup earns less and 50 ure Because income distribution is always skewed, the e income The top of the h incoe incoe incoures are not always available

40 Heilbrun and Gray (2001, ed princ 1993) 15, Menger (1999) 542 See also sec-tion 77

41 Cf Menger (1999) 607-8

42 Frank and Cook are not priht of low incomes in winner-takes-all markets They are interested in social efciency They demon-strate that from a social point of view, there tends to be too many participants in these markets Their analysis implies that even when the other causes of low in-comes in the table do not apply, there would still be a surplus of participants and therefore, social waste Frank and Cook (1995) 107-110 Frank and Cook (1995) 102-103 do not agree with the popular notion that society needs a very big pond in order to catch a few very talented artists They evidently disagree with Adler (1985) who has tried to offer a scientic basis for the notion of the big point In Chapter 9, I will return to this point

43 Menger (1999) 554 presents related explanations

44 A gure can be drawn (gure 1 presented at: <hansabbingnl>) in which the y-axis stands for monetary income and the x-axis for non-monetary incoe artist with respect to both forms of income and Up,q, etc are similar indifference curves of a non-arts pro-fessional Where the indifference curves of the artist cross the curves of the oth-er professional, the slope of the rst is greater

45 Frey (1997) and Towse (2001) assume that artists who seek status are intrinsi-cally instead of extrinsically motivated See note 3 of chapter 4 In uish intrinsic and extrinsicThere-fore, I use non-monetary versus monetary rewards and motivation

46 Economists have been reluctant to use the concept of psychic income because they think it has too often served as an easy way out for the explanation of phe-nomena, which are otherwise difcult to explain Cf Towse (1996b) 310

47 This shows in the changing slope of the indifference curve in gure 1 ure 2, presented at: <hansabbingnl>) which is a ure 1 mentioned in note 44, the kink in the indifference curves of artists, where the survival constraint for artists is approached, ex-presses this phenomenon

49 Not to complicate matters, in this chapter, the term 'risk' also covers the notion of uncertainty

50 Cf Singer (1981b), Frey and Poer was probably the rst to acknowledge the i artist behavior He applied the Fried model to the visual arts

51 Throsby (1994) 19

52 Cf Frank and Cook (1995) 103-105

53 Frank and Cook (1995) 104

54 Menger (1999) 553-4 See also note 63 of Chapter 6

55 Menger (1999) 601

56 Another outco cycle, which exists in a mild form in most professions: periods of too much entrance alternate with periods with too little

57 In the Netherlands, for instance, the percentage of self-taught artists with no of-cial art education is approxie for visual artists was found by Meulenbeek, Brouwer et al (2000) 21 and the saers (2000) 22 for perforer artists this percentage is even lower

58 The percentage of students at Dutch art schools withto Allen and Raher education institutions If gures were available for the ne arts depart-her

Structural Poverty