Part 19 (1/2)

FAIDHERBE (f[=a]-derb), Louis Leon Cesar, a French general, born in 1818, died in 1889. He entered the army in 1840, served in Africa and the West Indies, was appointed Governor of Senegal in 1854, and afterwards of a district in Algiers from 1867 to 1870. After the fall of Napoleon III, he was summoned by the Government of the National Defence to France and appointed commander of the army of the north. He fought some b.l.o.o.d.y but indecisive battles with the Germans under Manteuffel and Goeben. After the war he was elected to the a.s.sembly by Lille, his native place, but on the triumph of Thiers retired from politics to private life. He wrote _epigraphie Phenicienne_, and valuable monographs on Senegal, the Sudan, and other parts of Africa.

FAIENCE (f[.a]-yens'), imitation porcelain, a kind of fine pottery, superior to the common pottery in its glazing, beauty of form, and richness of painting. Several kinds of faience are distinguished by critics. It derived its name from the town of Faenza, in Italy, where a fine sort of pottery called _majolica_ was manufactured as early as the fourteenth century. The majolica reached its greatest perfection between 1530 and 1560. In the Louvre, the Musee de Cluny, the British and Victoria and Albert Museums, at Berlin, and at Dresden are rich collections of it. The modern faience appears to have been invented about the middle of the sixteenth century, at Faenza, as an imitation of majolica, and obtained its name in France, where a man from Faenza, having discovered a similar kind of clay at Nevers, had introduced the manufacture of it. True faience is made of a yellowish or ruddy earth, covered with an enamel which is usually white, but may be coloured. This enamel is a gla.s.s rendered opaque by oxide of tin or other suitable material, and is intended not only to glaze the body, but to conceal it entirely. See _Pottery_.--Cf. M. L. Solon, _The Old French Faience_.

FAILLY (f[.a]-y[=e]), Pierre Louis Charles Achille de, French general, born in 1810, died in 1892. He distinguished himself in the Crimean War, and commanded a division against the Austrians in 1859. He was the means of introducing the Cha.s.sepot rifle into the French army, and commanded the troops which dispersed Garibaldi's irregulars at Mentana. At the outbreak of the Franco-German War Failly received the command of the 5th Corps, but was very unfortunate or unskilful in his organization of operations. His masterly inactivity in the early weeks of the war caused great popular indignation in France. Sedan ended his career as a soldier.

FAILSWORTH, a town of England, in Lancas.h.i.+re, 4 miles north-east of Manchester, with cotton-mills. Silk-weaving and hat-making are also carried on. Pop. 16,972.

FAINeANTS (f[=a]-n[=a]-[.a][n.]; Fr., 'do-nothings'), a sarcastic epithet applied to the later Merovingian kings of France, who were puppets in the hands of the mayors of the palace. Louis V, the last of the Carlovingian dynasty, received the same designation.

FAINTING, or SYNCOPE, a sudden suspension of the heart's action, of sensation, and the power of motion. It may be produced by loss of blood, pain, emotional disturbance, or organic or other diseases of the heart. It is to be treated by placing the patient on his back in a rec.u.mbent position or even with head slightly depressed, sprinkling cold water on his face, applying stimulant scents to the nostrils, or anything which tends to bring back the blood to the brain. The admission of fresh cool air and the loosening of any tight articles of dress are important.

FAIRBAIRN, Patrick, Scottish theologian, born 1805, died 1874. He became a minister of the Established Church, but joined the Free Church at the disruption in 1843. In 1853 he was appointed professor of divinity in the Free Church College, Aberdeen, and in 1856 princ.i.p.al of the Free Church College, Glasgow. Among his works are: _Typology of Scripture_; _Jonah: his Life, Character, and Mission_; _Ezekiel_; _Prophecy_; _Hermeneutical Manual_; _Pastoral Epistles of St. Paul_. He edited and wrote extensively for the _Imperial Bible Dictionary_.

FAIRBAIRN, Sir William, British civil engineer, born at Kelso, Roxburghs.h.i.+re, in 1789, died 18th Aug., 1874. He was apprenticed as an engine-wright at a colliery in North s.h.i.+elds, and commenced business on his own account in Manchester with James Lillie in 1817, where he made many improvements in machinery, such as the use of iron instead of wood in the shafting of cotton-mills. About 1831, his attention having been attracted to the use of iron as a material for s.h.i.+pbuilding, he built the first iron s.h.i.+p. His firm became extensively employed in iron s.h.i.+pbuilding at Manchester and at Millwall, London, and had a great share in the development of the trade. He shares with Stephenson the merit of constructing the great tubular bridge across the Menai Strait. Fairbairn was one of the earliest members of the British a.s.sociation for the Advancement of Science, of which he was president in 1861 and 1862. He was created a baronet in 1869. Sir William wrote many valuable professional books and papers, amongst which are: _On Ca.n.a.l Steam Navigation_ (1831); _Iron: its History, Properties, and Manufacture_ (1841); _Application of Iron to Building Purposes_ (1854); _Iron s.h.i.+p-building_ (1865). His brother Sir Peter, born 1799, died 1861, had also great mechanical ability, and founded large machine-works at Leeds.

FAIRFAX, Edward, the translator into English verse of Ta.s.so's _Jerusalem Delivered_, was the natural son of Sir Thomas Fairfax of Denton, and born in the last quarter of the sixteenth century. He settled at Newhall, in the parish of Fewston, Yorks.h.i.+re, to a life of studious leisure. The first edition of his translation bears the date of 1600. One or two eclogues by him also remain. He died in 1635.

FAIRFAX, Thomas, Lord, parliamentary general during the English Civil War, born in 1611 at Denton, in Yorks.h.i.+re, died at Nun Appleton, Yorks.h.i.+re, 12th Nov., 1671. He was the son and heir of Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax, to whose t.i.tle and estates he succeeded in 1648. After serving in the Netherlands with some reputation, he returned to England, and on the rupture between Charles I and the Parliament joined the forces of the latter. In 1642 he was appointed General of the Horse, and two years later held a chief command in the army sent to co-operate with the Scots. In 1645, on the resignation of the Earl of Ess.e.x, Fairfax became general-in-chief of the Parliamentary army. After the victory at Naseby he marched into the western counties, quelling all opposition, put down the insurgents in Kent and Ess.e.x in 1647, and captured Colchester. In April, 1649, he was occupied along with Cromwell in suppressing revolt in the army; but positively declined to march against the Scottish Presbyterians. He was a member of Cromwell's first Parliament. He co-operated in the restoration of Charles II, being one of the committee charged to secure his return.

FAIRFORD, a town in Gloucesters.h.i.+re, England, 8 miles east by south of Cirencester, with a church the twenty-eight windows of which are filled with beautiful stained gla.s.s, formerly ascribed to Albert Durer, but now known to have been designed and executed in England. Fairford was the birth-place of John Keble. Pop. 1410.

FAIR HEAD, a basaltic promontory on the north coast of Ireland, County Antrim, rising to the height of 636 feet.

FAIRIES AND ELVES. The fairies of folk-belief must be distinguished from the fairies of imaginative literature. Shakespeare, for instance, drew upon the fairy-lore of living tradition to create a new fairy mythology (as in _A Midsummer Night's Dream_) which became a literary convention. In the fairy stories of Hans Andersen the folk-material was similarly used in a free and individual manner. A distinction must likewise be drawn between the Celtic fairies and the Teutonic elves. The former are mainly females, like the nymphs of Homer, ruled over by a fairy queen, while the latter are mainly males, ruled over by an elf-king. Mab, the fairy queen, had no consort in British fairy literature until Oberon, King of the Fairies, was imported from mediaeval romance. His name 'Auberon', anciently 'Alberon', is identical with that of the German elfin king 'Alberich'. Indeed, the very names 'fairy' and 'fay' were introduced into these islands from abroad.

More than one cla.s.s of supernatural beings referred to in Gaelic as the _side_ (Irish) or _sith_ (Scottish), and p.r.o.nounced _shee_, are now called 'fairies'. These include the Danann deities of Irish mythology and 'the mothers' (Y Mamau) of Welsh folk-lore. The word _side_ or _sith_ has the secondary meaning of 'peace', and refers to the silence of death and the silence of fairy movements. It may also be translated as 'supernatural', 'Otherworld', or 'unearthly'. Mysterious diseases that come in epidemics and afterwards disappear are referred to as diseases of the side or sith.

Cat demons are _cait s.h.i.+th_, the cuckoo is _eun sith_, the mythical 'water horse' is _each sith_, a monstrous dog that pa.s.ses over land and sea by night is _cu sith_, while the 'will-o'-the-wisp' is _teine sith_ ('supernatural fire'). In Iceland _side_ refers to the dwellings (earth mounds, &c.) of the Dananns, &c., as well as to the supernatural inhabitants. The fairies of folk-belief always come from the west on eddies of wind, and cannot be seen except by those who have 'second sight', or those whose eyes have been anointed with a green balsam possessed by fairies. Sometimes the fairies render themselves visible to all, but one who grasps the garment of a fairy finds his hand closing on nothing. The usual height of fairies is about 3 feet, but they have power to shrink and pa.s.s through a crack in a door. They may also a.s.sume great stature. The Danann _side_ of Ireland are of human or above human height. In Scotland 'green ladies' are of ordinary human size. The chief fairy colours are blue (the eyes), golden (the hair), and green, red, and grey (for clothing).

Occasionally fairy beings are white and black. A black fairy with a red spot above the heart is referred to in Scottish stories, but is rare. He can be slain by piercing the red spot. The _side_ or _sith_ may be attired entirely in green with red caps, or have red cloaks and green skirts. A beautiful fairy queen may suddenly transform herself into an ugly old hag with black and white face and garments, as did the fairy who carried off Thomas the Rhymer to the Underworld. The dead were supposed to go to Fairyland, the Pagan Paradise. Those who died before their time were doomed to visit their former haunts as 'green ladies', i.e. green ghosts, until their measure of life was completed. Stories that tell of visions of the dead in the Underworld refer to them feasting and dancing, or reaping corn and plucking fruit in well-watered valleys. The resemblance of the Celtic Agricultural Paradise to the Otherworld of the Egyptian Osiris, which was originally situated under the ground, is of special interest. Both in the Underworld Paradise and on the 'Isles of the Blest' (the Celtic _Avalon_ or 'apple land' and 'Land of the Ever-Young') is a tree of life, which may be an apple tree, a hazel tree, or a rowan tree. The apples, nuts, or berries confer longevity on the G.o.ds and the souls of human beings that partake of them. On those human beings who have won their favour, the fairies bestow weapons, implements, musical instruments, songs, tunes, and medicines, and the power to work charms and foretell future events. In the Underworld, fairies engage in metal working and other industries. Sometimes they visit houses, and spin and weave with supernatural skill and speed in a single night big bales of clothing material, or make beautiful garments. Fairies possess gems, gold, silver, and copper in their underground dwellings.

Cornish miners hear them working in their mines. The 'banshee' (Ir.

_ben-side_) is a Fate who is seen was.h.i.+ng the blood-stained clothing, or the 'death clothes', of those who are doomed to die a sudden death. She either howls, or sings a weird song, or can be heard 'knocking' as she strikes the clothing with a beetle during the was.h.i.+ng, when a tragedy is at hand. Fairy women of great beauty have human lovers, but vanish for ever after a few meetings, with the result that their lovers become demented.

Fairy men (_fer-side_) likewise upset the minds of girls. The fairies abduct human children, leaving 'changelings' in cradles, or carry off wives to act as 'wet nurses' or midwives. Men who die suddenly are supposed to be transported to Fairyland. King Arthur, the Rev. Mr. Kirk of Aberfoyle, Thomas the Rhymer, and others were removed to the Fairy Paradise. Among the Celtic _side_ are _pixies_, _geniti-glinni_ (valley genii), _Bocanachs_ (male goblins), _Bananachs_ (female goblins), _Demna aeir_ (spirits of the air), &c. Fairies may appear in animal forms, chiefly as beautiful birds.

Elves are workers in metals, like Wayland Smith, and guardians of treasure who a.s.sume the forms of fish, otters, serpents, &c. Black elves dwell under the ground, and white elves haunt the air and the sea. Sea-elves are 'nikkers'. The Greek 'Fates', like the Celtic fairies, spin, weave, and embroider wedding and other garments in a single night for those they favour, and sometimes appear in groups of three, as old hags, to foretell tragic events or work spells. Celtic 'women of the _side_' sometimes appear in groups of three. The nereids are, like the fairy ladies, beautiful and capricious, and are likewise invariably blue eyed and golden haired.

'Nereid born' refers to the changeling idea. Nereids travel on whirlwinds, and, like the Celtic fairies, cause spinning spirals of dust on highways.

They confer gifts on mortals, and accept offerings of food. Lacon the poet sings, ”I will set a great bowl of white milk for the nymphs”. In the Scottish Highlands the milk offering was poured on the ground for those 'under the earth', or into a hollowed stone (_clach-na-gruagaich_). The Indian 'nagas' have power to change from serpent to human form, or to appear as half-human, half-reptile beings. Like the Celtic fairies, they have been referred to by some writers as aborigines who hid from invaders in earth-houses, in forests, and among the hills. In this connection P. C.

Roy, the translator of the _Mahabharata_, writes: ”Nagas are semi-divine and can move through air and water and ascend to high heaven itself when they like, and have their home at Patala (the Underworld). To take them for some non-Aryan race, as has become the fas.h.i.+on with some ... is the very height of absurdity.... None of these writers, however, is acquainted with Sanskrit, and that is their best excuse.” The fairies and elves of China and j.a.pan resemble those of Europe. In Polynesia there are fairy-like beings. They are called _Patupaiarehe_, and dwell in lonely places, appearing only at night. Human beings receive gifts from them, or knowledge of how to make nets, weapons, &c. The changeling idea is as prevalent as in Europe. It is of special interest to find that the Polynesian fairies have, like the Celtic, fair hair and white skins. Other peoples believe in the existence of fairy-like beings. See _Folklore_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: T.

Keightley, _Fairy Mythology_; E. S. Hartland, _Science of Fairy Tales_; Delattre, _English Fairy Poetry from the Origins to the Seventeenth Century_; H. A. Giles, _China and the Chinese_; J. G. Lawson, _Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion_; Sir George Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_; P. W. Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_.

FAIR ISLE, an island lying nearly midway between the Orkney and Shetland Islands, 3 miles long by 2 broad. It is inaccessible except at one point, and rises to the height of 711 feet. Some grain is grown, but the surface is mostly in pasture. The men engage in fis.h.i.+ng; the women knit a well-known variety of hosiery, introduced, it is said, by Spaniards who escaped from the wreck of one of the vessels belonging to the Spanish Armada. There are two lighthouses. Pop. 147.

FAIR OAKS, BATTLE OF, fought at Fair Oaks, in Virginia, 7 miles east of Richmond, between the Confederates under General Johnston and the Union troops under General McClellan, 31st May, 1862. The loss on each side was nearly 6000 men; the result was indecisive.

FAIRS (Lat. _feria_, holiday, connected with _festus_, feast), periodical meetings of persons having goods or wares for sale in an open market held at a particular place, and generally for the transaction of a particular cla.s.s of business. The origin of fairs is obviously to be traced to the convenience of bringing together at stated times the buyers and sellers of the stock-produce of a district. In Europe the numerous festivals of the Church afforded the most favourable opportunity for the establishment of these markets. This a.s.sociation is indicated in the German name of a fair, which is identical with that used for the ceremony of the ma.s.s. In the Middle Ages fairs were of great importance, and were specially privileged and chartered by princes and magistrates, public proclamation being made of their commencement and duration. But modern facilities of communication have much diminished the necessity for periodical markets, and it is now chiefly amongst agriculturists that they are of much importance, large agricultural meetings being held in various districts for the sale of cattle and horses, and for the exhibition of agricultural implements. There are also, especially in Scotland, a considerable number of hiring fairs for farm servants. In the less developed commerce of the East, however, they still retain much of their ancient importance and magnitude. In Europe the most important fairs of the present day are those at Leipzig and Frankfort-on-the-Main in Germany, at Lyons in France, and Nijni-Novgorod in Russia. The last is, indeed, the largest fair in the world. The fairs of Great Britain now mostly consist of the weekly market-days of country towns and the agricultural meetings already mentioned. In many places the old fair-days are still kept, but are now merely an a.s.semblage of penny-theatres, peep-shows, and such amus.e.m.e.nts. Amongst the fairs which were once celebrated saturnalia, or rather baccha.n.a.lia, may be mentioned Donnybrook Fair in the county of Dublin; Bartholomew and Greenwich Fairs, London; and Glasgow Fair. The first three are now extinct. Fairs in the sense of markets are unknown in the United States, but the term is usually given to ladies' fancy bazaars, collections of fine art or the higher industries for public exhibition.--Cf. C. Walford, _Fairs, Past and Present_.

FAIR TRADE, an economical policy advocated by many in Britain, which, while not opposed to free trade in principle, would meet the prohibitory tariffs that foreign countries may put on British goods by placing equally heavy duties on goods sent from these countries to Britain. See _Free Trade_.

FAIRWEATHER, MOUNT, on the west coast of North America, in Alaska territory. It rises to the height of 14,900 feet, and is covered with perpetual snow.

FAIRY RING, a circle, or part of a circle of gra.s.s, of a darker colour and more luxuriant growth than the surrounding herbage, superst.i.tiously a.s.sociated with fairy revels. Actually it is due to the growth of a subterranean fungus-mycelium, which gradually spreads outwards from a central point of origin, the older parts dying and serving as manure for the gra.s.s, which appears even more vigorous than it really is by contrast with that on the outermost edge of the ring, where the living mycelium has a bad effect upon the gra.s.s-roots. The commonest fairy-ring fungus is _Marasmius oreades_, the fairy-ring champignon.

FAITH, the a.s.sent of the mind to the truth of what is declared by another, resting on his authority and veracity, either without other evidence or on probable evidence of any kind. In a special sense the term faith is used for the a.s.sent of the mind to what is given forth as a revelation of man's relation to G.o.d and the infinite, i.e. a religious faith. In Christian theology we have: first, _historical_ or _speculative faith_, or belief in the historic truthfulness of the Scripture narrative and the claims of Scripture to an inspired and supernatural origin; second, _evangelical_ or _saving faith_, that emotion of the mind (as Dwight defines it) which is called trust, or confidence exercised towards the moral character of G.o.d, and particularly of the Saviour.--Cf. W. R. Inge, _Faith and its Psychology_.