Part 10 (1/2)

59g water 0.8%.

2g salt 2%.

6g salt

(no sugar) 2%.

6g sugar

The numbers in the first column are ”baker's percentages,” which normalize the quant.i.ties to the quant.i.ty of flour by weight; the second column gives the gram weights for one pie's worth of dough.Just comparing these two recipes, you can see that the ratio of flour to fats ranges from 1:0.71 to 1:0.76, and that a higher percentage of water is called for in the Joy of Cooking Joy of Cooking version. version.However, b.u.t.ter isn't the same thing as shortening; b.u.t.ter is about 1517% water, whereas shortening is only fat. With this in mind, look at the recipes again: the Martha Stewart version has 76g of b.u.t.ter (per 100g of flour), for about 62g of fat; the pie dough with shortening has 60g of fat per 100g of flour. The quant.i.ty of water is also roughly equal between the two once the water present in the b.u.t.ter is factored in.You won't always find the ratios of ingredients between different recipes to be so close, but comparing recipes is a great way to learn more about cooking and a good way to determine which recipe to use when trying something new.NoteThere are two broad types of pie doughs: flaky and mealy. Working the fat into the flour until it is pea sized and using a bit more water will result in a flakier dough well suited to prebaked pie sh.e.l.ls; working it until it has a cornmeal-like texture will result in a more water-resistant, mealy, crumbly dough, which makes it better suited for uses where it is filled with ingredients when baked.Simple Pie DoughMeasure and combine all the ingredients for either the Joy of Cooking Joy of Cooking or the Martha Stewart recipe into a mixing bowl or the bowl of a food processor, cutting the b.u.t.ter into small cubes ( / 1 cm). You should preferably use pastry flour, but AP flour is okay. Chill in the freezer for 15 to 30 minutes. Chilling the ingredients prevents the b.u.t.ter from melting, which would allow the water in the b.u.t.ter to interact with the gluten in the flour, resulting in a less flaky, more bread-like dough. or the Martha Stewart recipe into a mixing bowl or the bowl of a food processor, cutting the b.u.t.ter into small cubes ( / 1 cm). You should preferably use pastry flour, but AP flour is okay. Chill in the freezer for 15 to 30 minutes. Chilling the ingredients prevents the b.u.t.ter from melting, which would allow the water in the b.u.t.ter to interact with the gluten in the flour, resulting in a less flaky, more bread-like dough.Pulse the ingredients in a food processor in one-to two-second bursts. Continue pulsing the dough until the ingredients are combined into a coa.r.s.e sand-like or small pebble-like consistency. If you do not have a food processor, use a pastry blender, a couple of knives, or your fingers to crumble the fats into the flour. Make sure if you use your hands not to let the temperature of the dough rise much above room temperature.Once the dough is at a coa.r.s.e sand- or pebble-like consistency, dump the dough out onto a floured cutting board and press it into a round disc. Using a rolling pin, roll the dough out into a sheet, then fold it over on itself and roll it out again, repeating until the dough has been compressed and has enough structure that it can be transferred to a pie tin.[image]Prebaked Pie Sh.e.l.lSome pies, such as lemon meringue pie (see Lemon Meringue Pie Lemon Meringue Pie in in Chapter6 Chapter6), call for the pie sh.e.l.l to be prebaked. To prebake a pie sh.e.l.l (also called blind baking blind baking), roll out the dough and transfer it to your pie tin or mold. You'll need to bake the pie with pie weights (no need to be fancy-beans or rice work perfectly); otherwise, the pie dough will slide down the edges and lose its shape. Once it's baked enough to hold its shape, remove the pie weights so that the pie sh.e.l.l has a chance to crisp up and brown.Set oven to 425F / 220C. Bake pie sh.e.l.l with pie weights for 15 minutes (use parchment paper to separate the pie weights from the dough, so that you can pick up the paper and remove the weights). Remove pie weights and bake for another 10 to 15 minutes, until sh.e.l.l is golden brown.NoteI hate hate the taste of uncooked flour; it burns the back of the mouth. If you're not sure whether your pie dough is done, err on the side of leaving it in longer. the taste of uncooked flour; it burns the back of the mouth. If you're not sure whether your pie dough is done, err on the side of leaving it in longer.[image]When prebaking-also called ”blind baking”-a pie sh.e.l.l, make sure to fill the sh.e.l.l with weights. Otherwise, the sides will collapse. Line the pie sh.e.l.l with a piece of parchment paper or foil and fill it with dried beans or rice.Martin Lersch on Chemistry in the Kitchen[image]PHOTO USED BY PERMISSION OF MARTIN LERSCHMartin Lersch blogs about food and molecular gastronomy at blog.khymos.org, which includes the excellent collection of recipes, ”Texture: A hydrocolloid recipe collection,” which demonstrates many uses of food additives. (We'll cover food additives and molecular gastronomy in Chapter6 Chapter6.)I see from your online bio that you have a PhD in organometallic chemistry. How did you get interested in chemistry in cooking?My whole food interest is in no way related to my studies or my work, apart from chemistry. It was when I was a student at the University of Oslo, almost 10 years ago, that I found On Food and Cooking On Food and Cooking by Harold McGee in the faculty library. It was very interesting. by Harold McGee in the faculty library. It was very interesting.So I started looking for more information, but at that time there wasn't really very much out there. At university, they often have students visiting from high schools, so at one point I was given the opportunity to talk about everyday chemistry; I think the t.i.tle was something like ”Everyday Chemistry in the Kitchen.” Then I put up a web page, and when I finished my PhD many years later, the page had grown, so I figured I would continue. I moved everything to khymos.org and started blogging. and started blogging.The whole time, it's only been a hobby. I've always liked cooking. Every chemist should actually be a decent cook, because chemists, at least organic chemists, are very used to following recipes. It's what they do every day at the lab. I often tease my colleagues, especially if they claim that they can't bring a cake to the office for a meeting, I say, ”Well, as a chemist, you should be able to follow a recipe!” As a chemist, I've always had, in a way, curiosity. I bring that curiosity back home into the kitchen and wonder, ”Why does the recipe tell me to do this or that?” That's really the case.How has your science background impacted the way that you think about cooking?I think about cooking from a chemical perspective. What you do in cooking is actually a lot of chemical and physical changes. Perhaps the most important thing is temperature, because many changes in the kitchen are due to temperature variations. Searing meat and sous vide are also good places to start. With sous vide, people gradually arrive at the whole concept themselves. If you ask them how they would prepare a good steak, many people would say you should take it out of the refrigerator ahead of time, so you temper the meat. While you temper it, why not just put it in the sink-you could use lukewarm water? Then if you take that further, why not actually temper the meat at the desired core temperature? Most people will say that's a good idea, then I say that's sous vide. It becomes obvious for people that that's actually a good idea.I'm very fascinated by the hydrocolloids. One of the reasons I spent so much time putting the recipes together was that when I bought hydrocolloids, maybe one or two recipes would be included, but I found them not to be very ill.u.s.trative. Everyone is familiar with gelatin, less so with pectin, but all the rest are largely unfamiliar. People don't know how they work, how you should disperse them and hydrate them, or their properties. The idea was to collect recipes that ill.u.s.trate as many of the ways to use them as possible. You can read a couple of the recipes and then can go into the kitchen and do your own stuff. That's what I hope it will enable people to do.NoteSee Buying Food Additives Buying Food Additives in in Chapter6 Chapter6 for an explanation of colloids. for an explanation of colloids.I think it's a fantastic recipe collection, having used it myself for exactly the purpose that you describe. Out of curiosity, is there a favorite hydrocolloid of yours?No, I haven't even tried them all-I don't have all of them in my kitchen.Really?I think the reason is more lack of time. With a full-time job, children, family... there's simply not enough time. It's a lot easier to skip the practical part and concentrate on the theory.Is there a particular recipe from which you've learned the most or found interesting or unexpected in some way?It's hard to think of one recipe. When talking about molecular gastronomy, it's easy to focus too much on the fancy applications like using liquid nitrogen or hydrocolloids. It's important to emphasize that this is not what molecular gastronomy is about, although many people think that; many people a.s.sociate molecular gastronomy with foams and alginate.I always try to include basic things to get down to earth. One thing that comes to mind is bread. It is really fascinating the great variety that you can achieve by using only water, flour, and salt. With the flour and water, you already have the wild yeast present, so you have everything set up for a sourdough. Then it depends on how you prepare your starter, the ratios involved, how you proof your dough, and how you bake it. Of course, this is not something new; bakers know this. But from a scientific viewpoint, it's very interesting to think about that. The no-knead bread ill.u.s.trates a lot of chemistry; you're probably familiar with that?[image]I am, but go on.Glutamine and gliadin, the two proteins that make gluten, can combine all by themselves once you have a dough that is wet enough. The typical hydration for no-knead bread would be somewhere in the 75% to 77% range. You bake the bread in a preheated pot, where you simulate a steam oven. Moist air is a much better heat conductor than dry air, and the moisture condenses on the surface of the bread. It enhances the crust formation and helps the gelatinization of the starch. It also prevents the crust from drying out and limiting the rise of the bread, so you get a much better oven spring this way. Once you remove the lid, everything is set for the Maillard reaction as the crust dries out. So there is a lot about both the way you make dough and the way you bake the bread that exemplifies basic chemistry and physics.Bread-No-Knead Method Weight Volume Baker's % Ingredient 390g 3 to 3 cups 100%.

All-purpose white flour 300g 1 cups 77%.

Water 7g 1 teaspoon 1.8%.

Salt ~2g teaspoon

Fresh yeast (a pea-sized lump); you can subst.i.tute 1 teaspoon (5g) instant yeast

Mix everything until the flour is completely moistened. This should take only about 30 seconds. Cover and let rest at room temperature for 20 hours.[image]Place a medium-sized cast iron pot in your oven and preheat both to 450F / 230C. While the oven is heating, transfer the dough onto a floured surface and fold three or four times. Leave for 15 minutes. Shape rapidly into a boule-a round loaf-and place on a generously floured cloth towel. Proof until doubled in size. Dump into the preheated cast iron pot and bake with the lid on for 30 minutes. Take the lid off and bake until the crust has a dark golden color, about 15 minutes.ADAPTED BY MARTIN LERSCH FROM JIM LAHEY'S NEW YORK TIMES NEW YORK TIMES RECIPE RECIPEMill Your Own FlourMilling flour is a lot easier than you might imagine: snag some wheat berries-which are just hulled wheat kernels, with bran, germ, and endosperm still intact-from your local health food store or co-op, run them through a mill, and you've got fresh flour.[image]Why bother? Well, for one, the taste is fresher; volatile compounds in the wheat won't have had time to break down. Then there are the health aspects. Most commercial whole wheat flours have to heat-process the germ to prevent it from going rancid, but this heat-processing also affects some of the fats in the flour.On the downside, freshly milled flour won't develop gluten as well as aged flour. For a rustic loaf of bread, this is probably fine, but it's not so good if you're trying to make whole wheat pasta, in which the gluten helps hold the pasta together. Of course, you can always add in some gluten flour to boost the gluten levels back up.You have a couple of options for mills. KitchenAid makes a mill attachment for its mixers. If you do spring for a KitchenAid attachment, though, be warned that it can put quite a strain on the mixer. Set it to low speed and run your grain through in two pa.s.ses, doing a first pa.s.s to a coa.r.s.e grind before doing a fine grind. Alternatively, take a look at K-Tec's Kitchen Mill, which is in roughly the same price range but is designed specifically for the task.You can run other grains, such as rice and barley, through a mill as well. Too-moist grains and higher-fat items such as almonds or cocoa nibs are a no-go, though: they'll gum up the grinder.[image]Wheat berries.[image]First pa.s.s: coa.r.s.e grind.[image]Second pa.s.s: fine grind.P.S. Don't expect to be able to mill things like cake flour. Cake flour is bleached with chlorine gas to mature it. Maturing Maturing-the process by which flour is aged-would eventually happen naturally due to oxidation, but chlorine treatment speeds it up. It also modifies the starch in the flour so that it can absorb more water during gelatinization (see Making gels: Starches Making gels: Starches in in Chapter6 Chapter6 for more on gelatinization of starches) and weakens the proteins in the flour, reducing the amount of gluten that can be formed. Additionally, chlorination lowers the temperature of gelatinization, so batters that include solids-nuts, fruits, chocolate chips-perform better because there's less time for the solids to sink before the starches are able to gel up around them. for more on gelatinization of starches) and weakens the proteins in the flour, reducing the amount of gluten that can be formed. Additionally, chlorination lowers the temperature of gelatinization, so batters that include solids-nuts, fruits, chocolate chips-perform better because there's less time for the solids to sink before the starches are able to gel up around them.

Biological Leaveners Biologically based leaveners-primarily yeast, but also bacteria for salt-rising breads-are surely the oldest method for generating air in foods. Presumably, a prehistoric baker first discovered that a bowl of flour and water left out will begin to ferment as yeast from the surrounding environment settles in it.

Yeast Yeast is a single-celled fungus that enzymatically breaks down sugar and other sources of carbon to release carbon dioxide, ethanol, and other compounds, giving drinks their carbonation, spirits their alcohol, and beer and bread their distinctive flavors. Even making chocolate involves yeast-the cocoa beans are fermented, which generates the precursors to the chocolate flavor.

Different strains of yeast create different flavors. Over the years we've ”domesticated” certain strains by selective breeding-from common baker's yeast for bread and wine (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to those for beer (usually S. carlsbergensis S. carlsbergensis, a.k.a. S. pastoria.n.u.s S. pastoria.n.u.s).

Since there's plenty of yeast literally floating around, you don't have to directly spike your brew or seed your bread with yeast. New strains of yeast usually start out as wild hitchhikers, and sometimes they taste great. Traditionally winemakers relied on ambient yeasts present in their cellars or even on the grapes themselves (this is the origin of the traditional European le gout de terroir le gout de terroir approach to winemaking). approach to winemaking).

However, the ”Russian roulette yeast method” might not end so well when you're working in your kitchen: there's a decent chance you'll end up with a nasty and foul strain of yeast that'll generate unpleasant-tasting sulfur and phenol compounds. This is why you should add a ”starter” strain: providing a large quant.i.ty of a particular strain ensures that it will out-race any other yeasts that might be present in the environment.

NoteThere's nothing magical about the strains of yeast we use other than someone taking notice of their flavor and thinking, ”Hey, this one tastes pretty good, I think I'll hang on to it!”

Like any living critter, yeast prefers to live in a particular temperature zone, with different strains preferring different temperatures. The yeast commonly used in baking breads-aptly named baker's yeast baker's yeast-does best at room temperature (5575F / 1324C). In brewing beer, ales and stouts are made with a yeast that is similar to baker's yeast; it also thrives at room temperature. Lagers and steam beer use a bottom-fermenting yeast that prefers a cooler environment around 3255 F / 013C. Keep in mind the temperature range that the yeast you're using likes, and remember: too hot, and it'll die.

Yeast in beverages Wine, beer, and traditional sodas all depend on yeast to ferment sugar into alcohol and generate carbonation. Consider the following equation: Fermentation = Water + Carbon (usually Sugar) + Yeast + Optional Flavorings Selecting the appropriate strain of yeast and controlling the breeding environment-providing food, storing at proper temperatures-allows for the creation of our everyday drinks: - Wine = Grape Juice[Water + Sugar] + Yeast - Beer = Water + Barley[Sugar] + Yeast + Hops[Flavoring]

- Mead = Water + Honey[Sugar] + Yeast - Soda = Water + Sugar + Yeast + Flavorings Some of these are easier processes to control than others. Wine, for example, is relatively straightforward, with few variables: vary the sugar level to control the amount of yeast activity and choose the grapes and strain of yeast per your desired type of wine (trace elements in the grapes themselves are usually responsible for the flavor and aromas in wine). Beer has more variables to play with: in addition to sugar levels, proteins and saccharides have to be controlled to correctly balance viscosity and head, and the bitterness of the hops has to be managed.

NoteHops-the flowers of a herbaceous perennial-are a recent addition to beer making. The earliest beers were flatter and sweeter, and would quickly spoil. Around the eighth century, brewers discovered adding hops extended storage times by acting as a preservative.Ginger Lemon SodaMaking your own homebrew doesn't have to be a long, drawn-out process. You can make your own soda with just a few minutes of work, and it's rewarding to see the curtain pulled back on an everyday drink, as the following recipe ill.u.s.trates.Start with an empty two-liter soda bottle. Add water, sugar, yeast, and flavorings, let it set at room temp for two days to give the yeast a chance to do its thing, and you'll have soda.Create a ginger syrup by bringing to a boil and simmering for at least 15 minutes: - 1 cup (240g) water - cup (150g) sugar - 1 cup (90g) ginger, finely chopped Strain simple syrup to remove ginger pieces and transfer into a two-liter soda bottle. Add: - 30 oz (900g) water - 4 oz (120g) lemon juice - teaspoon (1g) yeast Screw on lid, shake to combine, let rest at room temperature for two days, and then transfer to fridge and drink.

Dark & Stormy c.o.c.ktail In a highball filled with ice, pour: - 6 oz (180ml) Ginger Lemon Soda - 2 oz (60ml) Dark Rum Garnish with a slice of lime.

[image]Notes - For yeast, try using Lalvin's #1118 yeast (available online at ) or look for a local brewing shop. Baker's yeast can be used, but it'll contribute a slightly odd flavor. or look for a local brewing shop. Baker's yeast can be used, but it'll contribute a slightly odd flavor.

- Try adding cayenne pepper or other spices to the simple syrup, or making other flavors, such as mint lime. The method is the same-create a flavored simple syrup (say, cup mint leaves simmered instead of ginger), and use lime juice in the place of lemon juice. Like mojitos? In a tall gla.s.s filled with ice, pour 3 oz (90 ml) mint lime soda, 2 oz (60 ml) white rum, and 1 oz (30 ml) lime juice. To be proper, muddle fresh mint leaves with sugar in the gla.s.s before adding the ice.

- You can skip peeling the ginger, since it will be strained out. However, the ginger will become tender and sugary-this is how to make candied ginger!-so slice off the skin if you do want to save the pieces.

- Want to go all out, DIY-Soda-Company style? ”Recycle” some beer bottles and cap them yourself with a handy-dandy beer bottle capper, available for about $20 online.[image]

The Four Stages of Yeast in CookingYou've just added starter yeast to bread dough or a liquid such as wort (beer liquid before it's beer). What happens next?

- Respiration. A cell gains and stores energy. No oxygen? No respiration. During this stage, the yeast builds up energy so it can reproduce. A cell gains and stores energy. No oxygen? No respiration. During this stage, the yeast builds up energy so it can reproduce.

- Reproduction. The yeast cell multiplies via budding or direct division (fission) in the presence of oxygen. Acidic compounds get oxidized during this stage, with the quant.i.ty and rate depending upon the strain of yeast, resulting in different pH levels in the food. The yeast cell multiplies via budding or direct division (fission) in the presence of oxygen. Acidic compounds get oxidized during this stage, with the quant.i.ty and rate depending upon the strain of yeast, resulting in different pH levels in the food.

- Fermentation. Once the yeast has utilized all the available oxygen, it switches to the anaerobic process of fermentation. The cell's mitochondria convert sugar to alcohol and generate CO Once the yeast has utilized all the available oxygen, it switches to the anaerobic process of fermentation. The cell's mitochondria convert sugar to alcohol and generate CO2 (”yeast farts”!) and other compounds in the process. You can control the level of carbonation and alcohol in beverages by controlling the amount of sugar. (”yeast farts”!) and other compounds in the process. You can control the level of carbonation and alcohol in beverages by controlling the amount of sugar.

- Sedimentation. Once the yeast is out of options for generating energy-no more oxygen and no more sugar-the cell shuts down, switching to a dormant mode in the hope that more oxygen and food will come along some day. In brewing, it conveniently clumps together (called Once the yeast is out of options for generating energy-no more oxygen and no more sugar-the cell shuts down, switching to a dormant mode in the hope that more oxygen and food will come along some day. In brewing, it conveniently clumps together (called flocculation flocculation) and settles to the bottom, where it'll stay if you're careful when pouring out the liquid. Commercial beverages filter out and remove this sedimentation before bottling, but if you make your own brew, don't be surprised at the thick layer of gunk that forms.

While each yeast cell goes through these stages, different cells can be in different stages at the same time. That is, some cells can be reproducing while others are respiring or fermenting.

Yeast in breads Baker's yeast comes in three varieties: instant, active dry, and fresh. All three types are the same strain: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The instant and active dry versions have been dried so as to form a protective sh.e.l.l of dead yeast cells surrounding some still-living cells. Fresh yeast-also called cake yeast cake yeast because it is sold in a compressed cake form-is essentially a block of the yeast without any protective sh.e.l.l, giving it a much shorter shelf life (well, fridge life): cake yeast is good for about two weeks in the fridge, whereas instant yeast is good for about a year and active dry yeast is good for about two years in the cupboard. because it is sold in a compressed cake form-is essentially a block of the yeast without any protective sh.e.l.l, giving it a much shorter shelf life (well, fridge life): cake yeast is good for about two weeks in the fridge, whereas instant yeast is good for about a year and active dry yeast is good for about two years in the cupboard.

Instant and active dry yeast are essentially identical, with two differences. First, active dry yeast has a thicker protective sh.e.l.l around it. This gives it a longer shelf life, but it also means it must be soaked in water before use to soften up the protective sh.e.l.l. The second difference is that the quant.i.ty of active yeast cells in active dry yeast is lower than in instant yeast, because the thicker protective sh.e.l.l takes up more s.p.a.ce: when a recipe calls for 1 teaspoon (2.9g) of active dry yeast, you can subst.i.tute in teaspoon (2.3g) of instant yeast.

Instant yeast is the easiest to work with: add it directly into the dry ingredients and mix. Unless you have reason to work with active dry or cake yeast, use instant yeast. Remember to store it in the fridge!

NoteThe recipes in this chapter a.s.sume that you are using instant yeast. Check in the refrigerated section of your grocery store: SAF Instant and Red Star are two of the more common brands.If you have active dry yeast instead, you will need to proof it first. Proofing-soaking in lukewarm water-softens the hard sh.e.l.l around the active dry yeast granules. Use lukewarm water (105F / 40C). If the water is below 100F / 38C, an amino acid called glutathione will leak out from the cell walls and make your dough sticky; if it's above 120F / 49C, the yeast will show very little activity.Don't be worried about too-hot tap water killing your yeast. Yeast actually dies somewhere above 131F / 55C, so too-hot water from the tap shouldn't be able to kill the yeast; it just slows down reproduction. You can confirm this by filling a gla.s.s with your hottest tap water, dumping in some yeast, waiting a few minutes to give the yeast time to come up to temperature, and then adding some flour and watching the yeast still do its thing.You can skip all this proofing and temperature stuff by just using instant yeast.Check Your Yeast!In baking, proofing proofing can refer to a few different things: checking that your yeast is alive, allowing the dough to rise, or allowing the shaped loaf to rest and rise before baking. can refer to a few different things: checking that your yeast is alive, allowing the dough to rise, or allowing the shaped loaf to rest and rise before baking.Whatever you call it, you should make sure that your yeast is alive before proceeding to work with it. Measure out 2 teaspoons (10g) of the yeast and 1 teaspoon (5g) of sugar into a gla.s.s and add cup (120g) of lukewarm water (105F / 40C). Stir and let rest for two to three minutes.You should see small bubbles forming on the surface. If you don't, your yeast is dead-time to head to the store.You probably don't need to check your yeast every time you use it, especially if you're using instant yeast and storing it in your fridge. If you notice that your doughs aren't rising as expected, though, give the yeast a quick check.[image]Proofed yeast will bubble up and foam (left); dead yeast will separate out and not foam (right).Bread-Traditional MethodIf you've never made bread before, a simple loaf is easy enough to make, and perfecting it will keep you busy for many years. This is one of those recipes that's worth making several days in a row, making one change at a time to understand how your changes impact the final loaf.In a large bowl, whisk to thoroughly combine: - 1 cups (180g) bread flour - 1 cups (180g) whole wheat flour - 3 tablespoons (30g) gluten flour (optional) - 1 teaspoons salt (2 teaspoons if using kosher or flake salt) - 1 teaspoons instant yeast (not active dry yeast) active dry yeast) Add: - 1 cup (240g) water - 1 teaspoon (7g) honey Stir just to incorporate-maybe 10 strokes with a spoon-and allow to rest for 20 to 30 minutes, during which the flour will absorb the water (called autolysing autolysing).After the dough has undergone autolysis, knead it. You can do this against a cutting board, pressing down on the dough with the palm of your hand, pus.h.i.+ng it away from yourself, and then folding it back up on top of itself, rotating the ball every few times. I sometimes just hold the dough in my hands and work it, stretching it and folding it, but this is probably unorthodox. Continue kneading the dough until it pa.s.ses the ”stretch test”: tear off a small piece of the dough and stretch it. It shouldn't tear; if it does, continue kneading.Form the dough into a ball and let it rest in the large bowl, covered with plastic wrap (spray it with nonstick spray to avoid it sticking), until it doubles in size, normally about 4 to 6 hours. Try to store the dough someplace where the temperature is between 72F / 22C and 80F / 26.5C. If the dough is kept too warm-say, if you're in a hot climate, or it's too close to a heating vent-it will double in size more quickly, so keep an eye on it and use common sense. Warmer-and thus faster-isn't necessarily better, though: longer rest times will allow for better flavor development.After the dough has risen, give it a quick second kneading-more of a quick ma.s.sage to work out any large gas bubbles-and form it into a tight ball. Coat it with a light dusting of flour, place it on a pizza peel (or piece of cardboard), cover it with plastic wrap again, and allow it to rest for another hour or two.NoteYeast produces both acetic and lactic acid at different rates depending upon temperature. Ideal rising temperature is between 72F / 22C and 80F / 26.5C.If kept too cold, dough will be tough and flat due to insufficient gas production, and the final loaf will have uneven crumb, irregular holes, and a too-dark, hard crust.On the other hand, dough risen in an environment too warm will be dry, lack elasticity, and break when stretched, and the final loaf will have sour-tasting crumbs, large cells with thick walls, and a pale/whitish crust.While waiting for the dough to proof, place either a pizza stone or a baking stone in your oven and set it to 425F / 220C. (No pizza stone? Use a cast iron griddle or cast iron pan, flipped upside down.) Make sure that the oven is fully heated before baking-a full hour of preheating is not unreasonable.Just before transferring the dough to the oven, pour a cup or two of boiling water into a baking pan or cookie sheet and set it on a shelf below the baking stone. (Use an old cookie sheet; the water may leave a hard-to-clean residue on it.) Alternatively, you can use a spray bottle to squirt the inside of the oven a dozen or so times to increase the humidity. (Be careful not to hit the light bulb inside: it can shatter.) Upping the humidity will help impart heat into the bread faster and will also prevent the outside of the loaf from setting prematurely, giving the bread better oven spring oven spring-the rise that occurs as the loaf heats up in the oven before the outside of the loaf sets and becomes, essentially, an exoskeleton.With a serrated knife, lightly slash the top of the loaf with an ”X” and then place it into the oven. Bake until the crust is golden brown and the loaf gives a hollow sound when rapped on the bottom with your knuckles, about 30 minutes. You can also check for doneness using an instant-read thermometer; the internal temperature should be above 205F / 96C and ideally around 210F / 98.5C, which is the temperature at which starches in flour break down (see Making gels: Starches Making gels: Starches in in Chapter6 Chapter6 for more about starch gelatinization). for more about starch gelatinization).Allow the bread to cool for at least 30 minutes or so before slicing; it needs to cool sufficiently for the starches to gelatinize and set.Notes - If even at the ideal rising and baking temperatures your bread is still coming out too dense, try reducing the amount of whole wheat flour to 1 cup (120g) and increasing the bread flour to 2 cups (240g).

- For an even simpler bread, see the interview with Martin Lersch in Gluten Gluten earlier in this chapter, or search online for ”no-knead bread.” Mark Bittman of the earlier in this chapter, or search online for ”no-knead bread.” Mark Bittman of the New York Times New York Times describes a technique used by Jim Lahey, a baker in New York, in which the dough is left to sit for a day, during which the gluten forms without kneading. describes a technique used by Jim Lahey, a baker in New York, in which the dough is left to sit for a day, during which the gluten forms without kneading.