Part 12 (2/2)

By considering what it has in common with other phenomena, the phenomenon being described may be cla.s.sified as being subsumed in a broader category. Thus, empathy is a human response, a coalescent movement, a form of relating.

The phenomenon may be described by selecting its central or decisive characteristics and abstracting its accidentals. For instance, interpersonal empathy always involves movement into another's perspective and as a form of movement it has directions, dimensions, and degrees. It can occur between persons of difference age, education, experience, s.e.x; these latter characteristics are accidental.

Some descriptions make use of negation. A phenomenon cannot be described completely by negation but it may be clarified to some extent by saying what it is not. For instance, empathy is not sympathy; it is not projection; it is not identification.

a.n.a.logy may be used to promote a.n.a.lytic examination and description.

This involves a comparison based on partial similarity between like features of two things. For example, the movement of empathy is like the currents in the sea; the heart is like a pump. The advantage of using a.n.a.logy is that the comparison raises questions about the nature of the phenomenon under consideration. However, since the similarity between the a.n.a.logues is always partial, one must guard against overextending the comparison to unwarranted conclusions. The description must always be consonant with the phenomenon as it occurs in reality.

The use of a metaphor also may enhance description and a.n.a.lysis. A metaphor suggests comparison of the phenomenon with another by the nonliteral application of a word. For example, ”the between is a secret place.” The use of metaphor may be criticized in regard to its lack of precision. On the other hand, there are some (for example, Marcel, Buber) who hold that the intersubjective realm can be described only metaphorically because it is {84} beyond the level of objectivity. And to attempt to describe intersubjective phenomena in precise terms related to the physical world would tend to distort rather than clarify.

Many of the nursing phenomena requiring description occur within the intersubjective realm. Metaphors could cast some light on these.

CONCLUSION

As a theory of practice, humanistic nursing is derived from individual nurses' actual experiences in their uniquely perceived but commonly shared nursing world. Its development, therefore, depends on the articulation of their angular views and also on the truly collaborative effort of a genuine community of nurses struggling together to describe humanistic nursing practice.

Since the description of nursing phenomena is recognized as a basic and essential step in theory development, this chapter presented an approach and detailed some techniques used by nurses to describe phenomena. It is hoped that these would be viewed critically and creatively; that they would be used, varied, combined adapted, and lead to new methods suited to the description of nursing phenomena. And if they are developed, it is hoped that they will be shared for the growth of humanistic nursing depends not only on using and sharing what we learn but also on describing how we come to know. Then humanistic nursing theory will grow in dialogue.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Loretta T. Zderad, ”A Concept of Empathy” (Ph.D. dissertation, Georgetown University, 1968). Josephine G. Paterson, ”Echo into Tomorrow: A Mental Health Psychiatric Philosophical Conceptualization of Nursing” (D.N.Sc. dissertation, Boston University, 1969). Loretta T.

Zderad, ”Empathy--From Cliche to Construct,” _Proceedings of the Third Nursing Theory Conference_ (University of Kansas Medical Center Department of Nursing Education, 1970), pp. 46-75. Josephine G.

Paterson, ”From a Philosophy of Clinical Nursing to a Method of Nursology,” _Nursing Research_, Vol. XX (March-April, 1972), pp.

143-146. Josephine G. Paterson and Loretta T. Zderad, ”All Together Through Complementary Synthesis,” _Image_, Vol. IV, No. 3 (1970-71), pp.

13-16.

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8

HUMANISTIC NURSING AND ART

The term ”humanistic nursing” often is interpreted as implying humaneness. Logically, humane caring must be one aspect (a major aspect) or a natural expression of humanistic nursing practice theory. But the term means more. According to the position being taken here, nursing may be described appropriately as humanistic since at its very base it is an inter-human event. As an intersubjective transaction, its meaning is found in the human situation in which it occurs. As an existential act, it involves all the partic.i.p.ants' capacities and aims at the development of human potential, that is, at well-being and more-being. Our approach qualifies, then, as a form of humanism, according to the dictionary definition, being ”a system or mode of thought or action in which human interests, values, and dignity are taken to be of primary importance.”

In another sense of the word, our theoretical stance is humanistic by virtue of its regard for the humanities and arts. Philosophy, literature, poetry, drama, and other forms of art are valued as resources for enriching our knowledge of man and the human situation.

They also are seen as suitable means for expressing or describing the lived realities of the nurse's world.

Contemporary nursing, being a true child of its time, reflects American society's high regard for ”Science.” Values of science are easily discernible in nursing and affect the character of its research, education, and practice. Consider, for instance, how the nursing dialogue is influenced by the prizing of objectivity, precision of language, operational definitions, scientific jargon, development of constructs and theories, methodology of scientific inquiry, emphasis on quantification and measurement.

There is much more written in our current literature about nursing as a science than about nursing as an art. Although slighted, the humanities have not been rejected. In fact, some nurses and educators are urging that the role {86} of the humanities and arts be recognized in nursing and that they be used more effectively in undergraduate and graduate nursing education.[1]

Turning to my own personal experience, I recall that one of the first definitions I had to learn in my basic nursing program began with the statement, ”Nursing is an art and science....” (It is interesting that now, years later, this is all I can recall of the definition!) At that time, I accepted the statement at face value. I did not question it.

Perhaps I had not thought enough about art and science and certainly I did not know enough about nursing to question the description. Yet over the years many experiences and insights have turned into questions that challenge this adopted cherished notion.

In the beginning I merely accepted the view that nursing is an art in the sense of being a skillful or aesthetic application of scientific principles. After all, we had a course in nursing arts (later called fundamentals of nursing). This had to do with bathing, feeding, making beds, and hundreds of other nursing procedures that were presented as ”nursing arts,” the doing of nursing. At the time I also had courses in the humanities and liberal arts. These courses were not related directly to nursing by either the teachers or myself, as I recall. I did not ask: In what way is nursing an art? What kind of art is nursing? Or, how does the art of nursing differ from other arts?

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