Part 15 (1/2)
_Grat.i.tude._--Grat.i.tude should be considered a _holy_ duty. We call, in fact, holy any moral object regarding which no act could entirely acquit one of the contracted obligation. Now there is no way of acquitting one's self of a benefit received, because he who receives it cannot refuse to him who grants it the merit and advantage of having been the first in showing his kindness.
The least degree of grat.i.tude is to render to the benefactor _equivalent services_. It is, also, never to look upon a kindness received as upon a burden one would be glad to be rid of (under pretext that it places the one under obligation in a position inferior to that of his benefactor, which is wounding to his pride). One must, on the contrary, accept it as a moral kindness, that is to say, as furnis.h.i.+ng us an opportunity to practice a virtue. (Ibid., p. 130, 132.)
=70. Precautions which benevolence requires.=--Benevolence should not be exercised without reserve and precaution. In abandoning one's self to it imprudently, one may do more harm than good. Cicero on this subject recommends three princ.i.p.al precautions:
”One must take care,” he says:
”1. Lest, in wis.h.i.+ng to do a person good, one does harm, either to him or to others;
”2. In the second place, let not our benevolence exceed our means;
”3. Finally, let every one be treated according to his deserts.”
1. Those, in fact, whose benevolence injures him who is the object thereof, should be looked upon as flatterers, rather than generous men. Those who injure some, to be generous towards others (as, for example, to omit paying one's debts, in order to exercise charity), commit the same injustice as if they appropriated what belongs to others. Thus, when Sylla and Caesar transferred to strangers the property of lawful owners, they were not generous; liberality may exist then where justice is absent.
2. The second precaution is to exercise our benevolence according to our means. Those who wish to be more benevolent than they can afford, are in the first place unjust to their family; since the property, to the inheritance of which it has a right, goes thus over to strangers.
Such generosity often leads, moreover, to the enriching of one's self at the expense of others, in order to provide for liberalities. One sees, thus, many people, more vain than generous, pa.s.s for being benevolent. It becomes then a borrowed virtue, which has more of vanity than liberality.
3. The third rule is, whilst dispensing our liberalities, to proportion them to merit; to consider the morals of him who is their object, the attachment he shows us, the different relations he may have with us; lastly, the services he may have rendered us. It were desirable he had all these t.i.tles to our benevolence; but if he has them not all, the greatest and largest in numbers should weigh most in the scales.
=71. Self-devotion--Self-abnegation--Sacrifice.=--When charity reaches the highest degree; when it requires we should give to others what we hold most dear--as, for instance, life, fortune, etc.--it takes another name and is called _devotion_, _self-abnegation_, _sacrifice_. These three words, with various shadings, express the idea of a precious gift of which one deprives himself to benefit others. One may devote one's self to others in various ways, in choosing for one's object either the life, or welfare, or liberty, or the morality and intelligence of others. Let us examine these various forms of devotion.
=72. The nature of the benefit.--Diverse forms of self-devotion.--The life, the welfare, the morality of others, etc.=--_Sacrificing one's life for others._--Justice requires we should not attack the life of others; charity requires more: it demands that we make every effort to save the life of our fellow-beings, even sometimes at the cost of our own.
This duty, which is a duty of charity for men in general, is a duty of justice for the physician and all those who have care of the sick. The physician owes his devotion to the patient, as the soldier owes his to his country. In both these cases _medical duty_, _military duty_, devotion is a strict duty. It is at the same time a duty towards men and a duty towards the profession. It is in both cases what may be called the _honor of the flag_. Thus do we every year see a certain number of young hospital physicians die, like soldiers on the field of honor.
The duty of attending the sick and being thereby exposed to contagion, falls alike on all who have chosen this profession: sisters of charity, the nurses, the male and female attendants in infirmaries. It is also a duty in the family; the parents owe themselves to their children; the servants themselves should a.s.sume in a certain measure the same responsibility, although it is the duty of the masters to spare them as much as possible. Moreover, it is known how common this devotion is, especially with mothers, and how many of them die of the illness they have contracted at the bedside of their children. In all these circ.u.mstances, it is of course not forbidden to be cautious, and wisdom requires one should not go beyond the strictly necessary; but the necessary is obligatory; and on whom should it fall more naturally than on the parents?
Besides the illnesses which threaten the lives of men, there are dangers more sudden, more violent, more terrible, which arise from the invasion of the forces of nature: fire and water are the most terrible; conflagrations, inundations, s.h.i.+pwrecks, catastrophes of all kinds imperil the lives of men.
Here the question is no longer one of slow and leisurely attentions. To save a life which a minute later will be extinguished, there is wanted a sudden resolution, a well-tested courage, and the will to risk one's life for that of another. In these terrible circ.u.mstances there are some men who seem to be more naturally called than others to sacrifice themselves; for example, firemen and sailors. It is certain that it is those who are the more familiar with the element it is necessary to combat, that are most called to do so, and for whom self-devotion becomes a greater duty.
But it is not always possible to have them immediately at hand; in a sudden catastrophe, all must take their share of the peril; all must be ready to give their life for others if they can do so with some utility.
_Devotion towards the wretched._--Next to health and life, what men most esteem are material goods and that which is called fortune. Certainly, we should not encourage this estimation men have for material goods; one should as much as possible teach them to do without them; and the saying that happiness resides rather in a small competence than in riches, is most true. But it is not less true that the material things are absolutely necessary to life, and that the absence of these things is in every respect prejudicial to man, since health, life, and even the interests of the soul and mind, depend on these material goods. How can we educate ourselves without eating? How can we improve the heart and soul when want impels us to all sorts of temptations? Finally, suffering itself, though morality commands us to bear it with courage, is a legitimate object of sympathy. From all these considerations arises, for those who possess anything, the obligation to come to the a.s.sistance of those who have nothing: this is what is called _gift_. This obligation can be satisfied in many ways, but the mode should certainly consist with the dignity and responsibility of those who are the object of the gift. Experience has shown that an ill-understood charity encourages idleness and often rewards and perpetuates vice. It is therefore work which should above all be furnished to the poor: the loan should generally be preferred to the gift; but finally, whatever precautions one may take, and whatever be the causes of the misery, there comes always a moment when, in presence of hunger, illness, supreme want, one must give; must deprive himself for others. As to the particular rules which govern benevolence, we have given them above in speaking of benefactions.
_Consolations, exhortations, instructions._ After the duties toward the body come the duties toward the soul: and this distinction has place for others as for ourselves. It is not enough to insure and save the lives of men, and give them the daily bread; one must also nourish their souls, their intelligences, their moral weaknesses, which also need sustenance.
Thence three different obligations: to _console_ the afflicted; to _exhort_ the weak; to _instruct_ the ignorant. The consoling of the afflicted is a virtue, which needs no rule, and does not admit of any. One does not console by order, by processes, by principles. Here the heart is better than strict laws. Listen to your heart; it will teach you how to be merciful without being indiscreet; how to touch without wounding; how to say enough without saying too much. In respect to poor people, one often consoles them by relieving their misery, and the duty here blends with benevolence. After the consolation come the _exhortations_. The duty here becomes more and more delicate. It is no easy thing to advise men; we have not even always a right to do so; for it is attributing to ourselves a certain superiority over them. This duty of exhortation is therefore an affectation of pride rather than an inspiration of fraternity. It is especially with children, with young people, that good exhortations properly made can be useful. In a few words, moderate and just, one may often recall to them their duties of respect towards themselves, and of economy, sobriety, devotion towards their relatives. Finally comes the duty of _instruction_. Here it is not the office of all, but only of those who are charged with this function. Yet may we contribute our share towards the instruction of children either by money-contributions, or by visiting the schools, or by encouragement-societies; in a word, by all sorts of auxiliary means. Such are the princ.i.p.al duties in regard to souls.
=73. Clemency.--Pardon of injuries.--Love of enemies.=--The foregoing duties consist not only in returning good for evil, but also in doing good to those who have not done us any. A superior degree of charity, which is called _generosity_, consists in returning good for evil, in forgiving the wicked,--not the wrong they have done to others, but the wrong they have done to ourselves. This, in the case of sovereigns, is called _clemency_.
The saying of Louis XII. is well known, having pardoned the enemies he had had before taking the crown: ”The king,” said he, ”should forget the injuries done to the duke of Orleans.” The great Conde was moved to tears over Corneille's celebrated lines in _Cinna_:
”Let us be friends, Cinna; it is I who invite thee: I gave thee thy life as to my enemy, And despite the fury of thy cowardly designs, I still give it thee, as to my murderer.”
The duty of returning good for evil goes even further than clemency and the pardon of injuries: for this is nothing more than to abstain from wronging one's enemies. But we should do more: we must be capable of doing good to our enemies when they deserve it, or need it; and further still, we should try to carry the virtue even so far as to interdict ourselves any feeling of pride, which would naturally arise in a heart great enough to avenge itself by benefits.
The philosopher Spinoza has admirably expressed this doctrine: ”Hatred must be overcome not by hatred, but by love and generosity.”
=74. Duties of kindness towards animals.=--Among the moralists, there are some who do not admit that we have any duties towards beings inferior to man, namely, animals; others, on the contrary, do not admit any duties towards any above man, consequently towards G.o.d; others, in fine, deny that man has any towards himself. There are scarcely any duties, except those towards our fellow-beings, that have not been questioned by one or the other of the moralists: some connecting the latter with the duties towards ourselves, or the duties towards G.o.d.