Part 41 (1/2)
Paoli.--Was.h.i.+ngton moved his army thirty-five miles up the Schuylkill and the British encamped south of the river near Valley Forge. To hara.s.s the rear of Howe's army Was.h.i.+ngton sent Wayne's division across the Schuylkill. At 1 A.M. on September 21 this force was surprised near the Paoli Tavern. The British fell upon the American camp with sword and bayonet, and before the grim work was over Wayne had lost more than three hundred men.
The British in Philadelphia.--On September 23 the British army crossed the Schuylkill and began to advance toward Philadelphia. When the news reached the city a Whig exodus began, probably a third of the population taking their departure. Congress removed the prisoners, archives, and most of the stores; upon Was.h.i.+ngton it conferred dictatorial powers for sixty days in the vicinity, and then adjourned to Lancaster and later to York. On September 25 Howe entered the capital.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Morristown, New Jersey, to Head of Elk, Maryland (1777) (Based on map in G.O. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_, Part. III, op. p. 492).]
Germantown.--Within a week Was.h.i.+ngton was ready to try to retake the city. The approach from the northwest lay through Germantown. In the outskirts Howe had stationed a strong force of infantry. Near the center of the village the fine brick mansion of Benjamin Chew, the Chief Justice of Pennsylvania, formed the pivot of the second line of defence which was commanded by Colonel Musgrave. A mile to the rear lay the bulk of the British army. Was.h.i.+ngton planned to advance in four columns.
Armstrong with the Pennsylvania militia on the right was to get in the rear of the British left. Sullivan commanded the next column to the east and was followed by the reserve under Stirling. A third column was commanded by Greene, and the Maryland and New Jersey militia, forming the fourth column, were to strike the British right. Save for a few shots fired by Armstrong's men, the militia failed to get into the fighting.
The dawn of October 4 broke in a dense fog, which destroyed the possibility of cooperation and led to much confusion. Sullivan's men arrived first and soon drove the British from their advanced position.
Then followed an attack which centered at Chew's house where Musgrave and his men had taken refuge. The sound of the firing attracted some of Greene's men who joined in the attack. The brick walls proved too strong for the American three-pounders, and most of the forces of Sullivan and Greene pa.s.sed on to attack the next line where five brigades of royal troops were drawn up along a narrow lane. The American units became separated, Greene having advanced a considerable distance ahead of Sullivan's troops. Suddenly Sullivan's force broke and fled in an unaccountable panic. This placed Greene in great jeopardy, for his flank was exposed and British reinforcements were approaching, but he coolly saved his men and guns. So heavy were the British losses that no serious attempt was made to follow the retreating army which was able to get away with all its artillery.
Opening the Delaware.--Philadelphia was firmly held by the British but the Delaware was still closed. At Billingsport a fort had been built and an obstruction had been thrown across the river. Another obstruction blocked the pa.s.sage below Mud Island, on which stood Fort Mifflin and opposite on the Jersey sh.o.r.e was Ft. Mercer. A flotilla of small craft patrolled the Delaware. On October 4 part of Lord Howe's fleet anch.o.r.ed in the river and two days later the obstruction at Billingsport was removed. On October 22 Colonel von Donop attempted to capture Ft. Mercer but he met with a b.l.o.o.d.y repulse. After this defeat the British proceeded with more caution in the reduction of Ft. Mifflin. Sh.o.r.e batteries were constructed which bombarded Mud Island for days. On November 15 two battles.h.i.+ps navigated the difficult channel and soon battered the walls of the fort to pieces. At nightfall the garrison abandoned the fortress. Four days later Ft. Mercer was evacuated when an overwhelming force advanced against it, and on November 21 most of the American vessels were set on fire by their crews. Communication with New York was thus opened and Howe prepared to settle down in Philadelphia for the winter.
Valley Forge.--In marked contrast to the comfort of the British camp was the condition of the American army. Was.h.i.+ngton had chosen Valley Forge for his winter quarters and there a fortified camp was constructed and rude cabins erected to house the men. The camp soon became a charnel house, for Congress failed to supply the necessary food and clothing, and sickness inevitably resulted. For days the men were without meat and existed on dough baked in the embers. ”Fire-cake” and water became the ration for breakfast, dinner, and supper. Blankets were lacking and the men were soon barefooted and in tatters. On Christmas day the winter broke with great severity and soon the hospitals, which were mere hovels unsupplied with beds, were crowded with the dying.
The Conway Cabal.--The anguish of Was.h.i.+ngton was intensified by an intrigue which threatened to deprive him of his command. This centered about Gates and an Irish soldier of fortune named Conway who had been sent over from France by Silas Deane. In November, 1777, Congress had vested the management of military affairs in a Board of War. Gates was made president of the board and Conway was appointed inspector general of the army. They were supported by the New England delegates in Congress and by those who opposed the Fabian policy of Was.h.i.+ngton.
Fortunately the intrigues of Conway and Gates to displace Was.h.i.+ngton became known to the public and so great was the popularity of the commander-in-chief that Congress dared not remove him.
READINGS
Charming, Edward, _History of the United States_, III, 210-273; Fisher, S. G., _The Struggle for American Independence_, I, 490-574, II, 1-174; Fiske, John, _The American Revolution_, I, 198-344, II, 25-81, 110-115; Greene, F. V., _The Revolutionary War_, 28-131; Hildreth, Richard, _History of the United States of America_, III, 140-162, 186-237; Lecky, W.E.H., _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, IV, 1-41, 55-98; Smith, J.H., _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony_, I, 193-606, II; Trevelyan, G.O., _The American Revolution_, II, 172-349, III, 1-147, IV, 111-319; Van Tyne, C.H., _The American Revolution_, 102-135, 157-174, 227-247; Winsor, Justin, _Narrative and Critical History_, VI, 275-447; Adams, C.F., _Studies Military and Diplomatic_, 1775-1865, pp. 22-173.
CHAPTER XXVI
THE WAR AS AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEST
THE FRENCH ALLIANCE
The French motives.--On February 6, 1778, France entered into an alliance with the United States. That event changed the war from a struggle between England and her former colonies to an international contest in which Spain and Holland were soon engaged. The motives of France in entering the contest have been variously ascribed to revenge for the loss of her possessions and the desire to regain them, to the intellectual movement in France, to the desire to build up French commerce at the expense of England, and to the fear that Great Britain would adjust the difficulties with the colonies and unite with them in an attack upon the French West Indies. Professor Corwin, who has recently examined the question, concludes that these explanations are not adequate. He contends that the basic principle of French diplomacy was the maintenance of leaders.h.i.+p in Europe, and that in return for this commanding position, France was willing to forego the extension of her dominion. In the Seven Years' War French prestige had been destroyed; to rebuild it was the object of her statesmen.
The policy of Vergennes.--In 1774 Louis XVI became king. No better intentioned ruler ever mounted a throne but his weak will and vacillating course led to his undoing. For two years Turgot was the reigning influence at the council board. He installed a system of economy and reform, which, had it been adhered to, would probably have saved France from the throes of her great revolution. Turgot's plans ran counter to the policy of Vergennes, the foreign minister, who desired to see his country take its place in the sun as the dictator of European politics. The attainment of Vergennes's policy was based upon three main ideas: the preservation of peace on the continent by a close alliance with Austria; a renewal of the Family Compact with Spain; and the humbling of England. The last was to be accomplished by the building up of the French navy, by secretly aiding the colonies, and when the time seemed auspicious, by entering into an alliance with them, an alliance in which Vergennes hoped that Spain would join. To win over the latter power and to overcome the aversion of Louis XVI to aiding rebellious subjects were the immediate problems of Vergennes.
Vergennes wins over the king.--A secret agent, Bonvouloir, was sent to America to ascertain the condition of the colonies. His first report, which reached Paris in March, 1776, gave a favorable statement of the military situation. Vergennes immediately attempted to convince the king that secret aid should be given the colonies. He argued that the prolongation of the struggle would be advantageous to France and Spain as it would weaken both contestants, and he pointed out that England would probably attack the French West Indies as soon as the present war was over. Aided by Beaumarchais, the author of _Le Mariage de Figaro_, Vergennes countered the advice of Turgot and won over the king to his plan.
Deane and Beaumarchais.--The secret committee on foreign correspondence of the Continental Congress in March, 1776, sent Silas Deane to Paris.
His presence became known to Lord Stormont, the British amba.s.sador, who demanded his deportation, but France refused and continually aided him in securing supplies. The French government also loaned the colonies a million livres and obtained a similar amount for them from Spain. When news of the Declaration of Independence reached Paris, Vergennes urged that France and Spain enter the war, but Was.h.i.+ngton's defeats around New York held back both countries. France continued to aid the colonies, the business being transacted by Beaumarchais through the fict.i.tious house of Hortalez et Cie. Beaumarchais also drew heavily upon his private fortune to a.s.sist the colonies.
Franklin.--The delay of France in making an open alliance caused Congress to appoint a commission composed of Silas Deane, Arthur Lee, and Benjamin Franklin Of all colonials Franklin was the best known in Europe. As a scientist, philosopher, wit, and statesman, his name was familiar to all cla.s.ses in the French capital. His unpretentious dress, unaffected manners, and simplicity of life made him seem to Parisians the impersonation of the natural man of Rousseau's philosophy. On the street, at the theater, in the salon, Franklin was the center of interest. Artists made busts of him and jewelers exhibited his countenance on medallions, watches, and snuff-boxes. Franklin soon discovered that he could not hurry matters; he quietly bided his time, never losing an opportunity to win supporters to the American cause.
Even the court became enthusiastic, and Marie Antoinette, with little understanding or prophetic vision, applauded the republicans of America.
The American proposals.--In January, 1777, the commissioners presented their views to Vergennes. They proposed that France and Spain furnish the United States eight s.h.i.+ps of the line, twenty or thirty thousand stand of arms, and a large quant.i.ty of cannon and ammunition. Congress in return offered the two nations a commercial treaty and a guarantee of their possessions in the West Indies. Vergennes was unable to comply but he advanced two hundred and fifty thousand livres as the first instalment of a secret loan of two millions. In February the commissioners suggested that, if France and Spain became involved in war because of a treaty with the United States, the states would not conclude a separate peace. In March they proposed a triple alliance between France, Spain, and the United States. The bait for Spain was the conquest of Portugal, and the war was to continue until England was expelled from North America and the West Indies.
The att.i.tude of Spain.--The American proposals included both France and Spain, and in the latter country the commissioners met with a stumbling block. Spain at first showed a friendly att.i.tude. Through the firm of Josef Gardoqui and Sons supplies were secretly furnished to the United States, but when Arthur Lee attempted to go to Madrid, he was turned back by the Spanish authorities, who preferred to work in secret. In February, 1777, the Count de Florida Blanca became minister of foreign affairs. To Florida Blanca Spain's interests must take precedence over those of France in determining Spanish policy. Difficulties with Portugal had been adjusted, and Florida Blanca could see no advantage in an immediate war with Great Britain. He was willing to keep the contest in America going until both parties were exhausted. Then Spain and France might enter the war, Spain to get the Floridas and France to obtain Canada. But as to the recognition of American independence, king and minister were unalterably opposed.
Lafayette.--Of no little importance in bringing France and the United States together was the coming of the young n.o.bleman Lafayette to America. Fired by the Declaration of Independence, he determined to enlist in the American cause. In April, 1777, Lafayette with the Baron de Kalb and several other officers sailed for America. They reached Philadelphia on July 27 but Congress gave them a chilly reception.
Nothing daunted, Lafayette proudly announced that he asked nothing but the opportunity of serving as a volunteer. Congress was deeply impressed by his unselfish att.i.tude and promptly made him a Major-General.
Was.h.i.+ngton received him gladly, took him into his military family and through the long war, with the exception of a period when he was promoting American interests in France, he served as a trusted officer of the commander-in-chief.
The French alliance.--During the summer of 1777 the American question was held in abeyance at Paris but Burgoyne's surrender stirred Vergennes to action. He appears to have feared that Great Britain was about to effect a reconciliation with the United States. To prevent it he believed that France must openly espouse the American cause. One more effort was made to draw Spain into the alliance, but the reply proved unfavorable. On January 7, 1778, at a French royal council meeting the final decision was made and on February 6 treaties of commerce and alliance were signed. The latter agreement was described as a defensive alliance to maintain effectually the liberty, sovereignty, and independence of the United States, as well in matters of government as in commerce.