Part 33 (1/2)

Note that consonants written twice, as tt tt, ll ll, ss ss, nn nn, represent long, 'double' consonants. At the end of words of more than one syllable these were usually shortened: as in Rohan Rohan from from Rochann Rochann (archaic (archaic Rochand Rochand).

In Sindarin the combinations ng ng, nd nd, mb mb, which were specially favoured in the Eldarin languages at an earlier stage, suffered various changes. mb mb became became m m in all cases, but still counted as a long consonant for purposes of stress (see below), and is thus written in all cases, but still counted as a long consonant for purposes of stress (see below), and is thus written mm mm in cases where otherwise the stress might be in doubt. in cases where otherwise the stress might be in doubt. 1 1 ng ng remained unchanged except initially and finally where it became the simple nasal (as in English remained unchanged except initially and finally where it became the simple nasal (as in English sing sing). nd nd became became nn nn usually, as usually, as Ennor Ennor 'Middle-earth', Q. 'Middle-earth', Q. Endore Endore; but remained nd nd at the end of fully accented monosyllables such as at the end of fully accented monosyllables such as thond thond 'root' (cf. 'root' (cf. Morthond Morthond 'Blackroot'), and also before 'Blackroot'), and also before r r, as Andros Andros 'long-foam'. This 'long-foam'. This nd nd is also seen in some ancient names derived from an older period, such as is also seen in some ancient names derived from an older period, such as Nargothrond Nargothrond, Gondolin Gondolin, Beleriand Beleriand. In the Third Age final nd nd in long words had become in long words had become n n from from nn nn, as in Ithilien Ithilien, Rohan Rohan, Anorien Anorien.

VOWELS.

For vowels the letters i i, e e, a a, o o, u u are used, and (in Sindarin only) are used, and (in Sindarin only) y y. As far as can be determined the sounds represented by these letters (other than y y) were of normal kind, though doubtless many local varieties escape detection. 2 2 That is, the sounds were approximately those represented by That is, the sounds were approximately those represented by i i, e e, a a, o o, u u in English in English machine machine, were were, father father, for for, brute brute, irrespective of quant.i.ty.

In Sindarin long e e, a a, o o had the same quality as the short vowels, being derived in comparatively recent times from them (older had the same quality as the short vowels, being derived in comparatively recent times from them (older e e, a a, o o had been changed). In Quenya long had been changed). In Quenya long e e and and o o were, when correctly were, when correctly 2 2 p.r.o.nounced, as by the Eldar, tenser and 'closer' than the short vowels. p.r.o.nounced, as by the Eldar, tenser and 'closer' than the short vowels.

Sindarin alone among contemporary languages possessed the 'modified' or fronted u u, more or less as u u in French in French lune lune. It was partly a modification of o o and and u u, partly derived from older diphthongs eu eu, iu iu. For this sound y y has been used (as in ancient English): as in has been used (as in ancient English): as in lg lg 'snake', Q. 'snake', Q. leuca leuca, or emyn emyn pl. of pl. of amon amon 'hill'. In Gondor this 'hill'. In Gondor this y y was usually p.r.o.nounced like was usually p.r.o.nounced like i i.

Long vowels are usually marked with the 'acute accent', as in some varieties of Feanorian script. In Sindarin long vowels in stressed monosyllables are marked with the circ.u.mflex, since they tended in such cases to be specially prolonged; 1 1 so in so in dun dun compared with compared with Dunadan. Dunadan. The use of the circ.u.mflex in other languages such as Adunaic or Dwarvish has no special significance, and is used merely to mark these out as alien tongues (as with the use of The use of the circ.u.mflex in other languages such as Adunaic or Dwarvish has no special significance, and is used merely to mark these out as alien tongues (as with the use of k k).

Final e e is never mute or a mere sign of length as in English. To mark this final is never mute or a mere sign of length as in English. To mark this final e e it is often (but not consistently) written it is often (but not consistently) written e e.

The groups er er, ir ir, ur ur (finally or before a consonant) are not intended to be p.r.o.nounced as in English (finally or before a consonant) are not intended to be p.r.o.nounced as in English fern fern, fir fir, fur fur, but rather as English air air, eer eer, oor oor.

In Quenya ui ui, oi oi, ai ai and and iu iu, eu eu, au au are diphthongs (that is, p.r.o.nounced in one syllable). All other pairs of vowels are dissyllabic. This is often dictated by writing are diphthongs (that is, p.r.o.nounced in one syllable). All other pairs of vowels are dissyllabic. This is often dictated by writing ea ea ( (Ea), eo eo, oe oe.

In Sindarin the diphthongs are written ae ae, ai ai, ei ei, oe oe, ui ui, and au au. Other combinations are not diphthongal. The writing of final au au as as aw aw is in accordance with English custom, but is actually not uncommon in Feanorian spellings. is in accordance with English custom, but is actually not uncommon in Feanorian spellings.

All these diphthongs 2 2 were 'falling' diphthongs, that is stressed on the first element, and composed of the simple vowels run together. Thus were 'falling' diphthongs, that is stressed on the first element, and composed of the simple vowels run together. Thus ai ai, ei ei, oi oi, ui ui are intended to be p.r.o.nounced respectively as the vowels in English are intended to be p.r.o.nounced respectively as the vowels in English rye rye (not (not ray ray), grey grey, boy boy, ruin ruin; and au au ( (aw) as in loud loud, how how and not as in and not as in laud laud, haw haw.

There is nothing in English closely corresponding to ae ae, oe oe, eu eu; ae ae and and oe oe may be p.r.o.nounced as may be p.r.o.nounced as ai ai, oi oi.

STRESS.

The position of the 'accent' or stress is not marked, since in the Eldarin languages concerned its place is determined by the form of the word. In words of two syllables it falls in practically all cases on the first syllable. In longer words it falls on the last syllable but one, where that contains a long vowel, a diphthong, or a vowel followed by two (or more) consonants. Where the last syllable but one contains (as often) a short vowel followed by only one (or no) consonant, the stress falls on the syllable before it, the third from the end. Words of the last form are favoured in the Eldarin languages, especially Quenya.

In the following examples the stressed vowel is marked by a capital letter: isIldur isIldur, Orome Orome, erEssea erEssea, feanor feanor, ancAlima ancAlima, elentari elentari, dEnethor dEnethor, periAnnath periAnnath, ecthElion ecthElion, pelArgir pelArgir, silIvren silIvren. Words of the type elentari elentari 'star-queen' seldom occur in Quenya where the vowel is 'star-queen' seldom occur in Quenya where the vowel is e e, a a, o o, unless (as in this case) they are compounds; they are commoner with the vowels i i, u u, as andune andune 'sunset, west'. They do not occur in Sindarin except in compounds. Note that Sindarin 'sunset, west'. They do not occur in Sindarin except in compounds. Note that Sindarin dh dh, th th, ch ch are single consonants and represent single letters in the original scripts. are single consonants and represent single letters in the original scripts.

NOTE.

In names drawn from other languages than Eldarin the same values for the letters are intended, where not specially described above, except in the case of Dwarvish. In Dwarvish, which did not possess the sounds represented above by th th and and ch ch ( (kh), th th and and kh kh are aspirates, that is are aspirates, that is t t or or k k followed by an followed by an h h, more or less as in backhand backhand, outhouse outhouse.

Where z z occurs the sound intended is that of English occurs the sound intended is that of English z z. gh gh in the Black Speech and Orkish represents a 'back spirant' (related to in the Black Speech and Orkish represents a 'back spirant' (related to g g as as dh dh to to d d): as in ghash ghash and and agh agh.

The 'outer' or Mannish names of the Dwarves have been given Northern forms, but the letter-values are those described.

So also in the case of the personal and place-names of Rohan (where they have not been modernized), except that here ea ea and and eo eo are diphthongs, which may be represented by the are diphthongs, which may be represented by the ea ea of English of English bear bear, and the eo eo of of Theobald Theobald; y y is the modified is the modified u u. The modernized forms are easily recognized and are intended to be p.r.o.nounced as in English. They are mostly place-names: as Dunharrow (for Dunharg Dunharg), except Shadowfax and Wormtongue.

II.

WRITING.

The scripts and letters used in the Third Age were all ultimately of Eldarin origin, and already at that time of great antiquity. They had reached the stage of full alphabetic development, but older modes in which only the consonants were denoted by full letters were still in use.

The alphabets were of two main, and in origin independent, kinds: the Tengwar Tengwar or or Tiw Tiw, here translated as 'letters'; and the Certar Certar or or Cirth Cirth, translated as 'runes'. The Tengwar Tengwar were devised for writing with brush or pen, and the squared forms of inscriptions were in their case derivative from the written forms. The were devised for writing with brush or pen, and the squared forms of inscriptions were in their case derivative from the written forms. The Certar Certar were devised and mostly used only for scratched or incised inscriptions. were devised and mostly used only for scratched or incised inscriptions.

The Tengwar Tengwar were the more ancient; for they had been developed by the Noldor, the kindred of the Eldar most skilled in such matters, long before their exile. The oldest Eldarin letters, the Tengwar of Rumil, were not used in Middle-earth. The later letters, the Tengwar of Feanor, were largely a new invention, though they owed something to the letters of Rumil. They were brought to Middle-earth by the exiled Noldor, and so became known to the Edain and Numenoreans. In the Third Age their use had spread over much the same area as that in which the Common Speech was known. were the more ancient; for they had been developed by the Noldor, the kindred of the Eldar most skilled in such matters, long before their exile. The oldest Eldarin letters, the Tengwar of Rumil, were not used in Middle-earth. The later letters, the Tengwar of Feanor, were largely a new invention, though they owed something to the letters of Rumil. They were brought to Middle-earth by the exiled Noldor, and so became known to the Edain and Numenoreans. In the Third Age their use had spread over much the same area as that in which the Common Speech was known.

The Cirth were devised first in Beleriand by the Sindar, and were long used only for inscribing names and brief memorials upon wood or stone. To that origin they owe their angular shapes, very similar to the runes of our times, though they differed from these in details and were wholly different in arrangement. The Cirth in their older and simpler form spread eastward in the Second Age, and became known to many peoples, to Men and Dwarves, and even to Orcs, all of whom altered them to suit their purposes and according to their skill or lack of it. One such simple form was still used by the Men of Dale, and a similar one by the Rohirrim.

But in Beleriand, before the end of the First Age, the Cirth, partly under the influence of the Tengwar of the Noldor, were rearranged and further developed. Their richest and most ordered form was known as the Alphabet of Daeron, since in Elvish tradition it was said to have been devised by Daeron, the minstrel and loremaster of King Thingol of Doriath. Among the Eldar the Alphabet of Daeron did not develop true cursive forms, since for writing the Elves adopted the Feanorian letters. The Elves of the West indeed for the most part gave up the use of runes altogether. In the country of Eregion, however, the Alphabet of Daeron was maintained in use and pa.s.sed thence to Moria, where it became the alphabet most favoured by the Dwarves. It remained ever after in use among them and pa.s.sed with them to the North. Hence in later times it was often called Angerthas Moria Angerthas Moria or the Long Rune-rows of Moria. As with their speech the Dwarves made use of such scripts as were current and many wrote the Feanorian letters skilfully; but for their own tongue they adhered to the Cirth, and developed written pen-forms from them. or the Long Rune-rows of Moria. As with their speech the Dwarves made use of such scripts as were current and many wrote the Feanorian letters skilfully; but for their own tongue they adhered to the Cirth, and developed written pen-forms from them.

(i) THE FeANORIAN LETTERS.

The table shows, in formal book-hand shape, all the letters that were commonly used in the West-lands in the Third Age. The arrangement is the one most usual at the time, and the one in which the letters were then usually recited by name.

This script was not in origin an 'alphabet': that is, a haphazard series of letters, each with an independent value of its own, recited in a traditional order that has no reference either to their shapes or to their functions. 1 1 It was, rather, a system of consonantal signs, of similar shapes and style, which could be adapted at choice or convenience to represent the consonants of languages observed (or devised) by the Eldar. None of the letters had in itself a fixed value; but certain relations between them were gradually recognized. It was, rather, a system of consonantal signs, of similar shapes and style, which could be adapted at choice or convenience to represent the consonants of languages observed (or devised) by the Eldar. None of the letters had in itself a fixed value; but certain relations between them were gradually recognized.

THE TENGWAR.

The system contained twenty-four primary letters, 124, arranged in four temar temar (series), each of which had six (series), each of which had six tyeller tyeller(grades). There were also 'additional letters', of which 2536 are examples. Of these 27 and 29 are the only strictly independent letters; the remainder are modifications of other letters. There was also a number of tehtar tehtar (signs) of varied uses. These do not appear in the table. (signs) of varied uses. These do not appear in the table. 1 1 The primary letters primary letters were each formed of a were each formed of a telco telco (stem) and a (stem) and a luva luva (bow). The forms seen in 14 were regarded as normal. The stem could be raised, as in 916; or reduced, as in 1724. The bow could be open, as in Series I and III; or closed, as in II and IV; and in either case it could be doubled, as e.g. in 58. (bow). The forms seen in 14 were regarded as normal. The stem could be raised, as in 916; or reduced, as in 1724. The bow could be open, as in Series I and III; or closed, as in II and IV; and in either case it could be doubled, as e.g. in 58.

The theoretic freedom of application had in the Third Age been modified by custom to this extent that Series I was generally applied to the dental or t t-series (tincotema), and II to the l.a.b.i.als or p p-series (parmatema). The application of Series III and IV varied according to the requirements of different languages.

In languages like the Westron, which made much use of consonants 2 2 such as our such as our ch ch, j j, sh sh, Series III was usually applied to these; in which case Series IV was applied to the normal k k-series (calmatema). In Quenya, which possessed besides the calmatema calmatema both a palatal series ( both a palatal series (tyelpetema) and a l.a.b.i.alized series (quessetema), the palatals were represented by a Feanorian diacritic denoting 'following y y' (usually two underposed dots), while Series IV was a kw kw-series.

Within these general applications the following relations were also commonly observed. The normal letters, Grade 1, were applied to the 'voiceless stops': t t, p p, k k, etc. The doubling of the bow indicated the addition of 'voice': thus if 1, 2, 3, 4=t, p p, ch ch, k k (or (or t t, p p, k k, kw kw) then 5, 6, 7, 8=d, b b, j j, g g (or (or d d, b b, g g, gw gw). The raising of the stem indicated the opening of the consonant to a 'spirant': thus a.s.suming the above values for Grade 1, Grade 3 (912)=th, f f, sh sh, ch ch (or (or th th, f f, kh kh, khw khw/hw), and Grade 4 (1316)= dh dh, v v, zh zh, gh gh (or (or dh dh, v v, gh gh, ghw ghw/w).

The original Feanorian system also possessed a grade with extended stems, both above and below the line. These usually represented aspirated consonants (e.g. t t+h, p p+h, k k+h), but might represent other consonantal variations required. They were not needed in the languages of the Third Age that used this script; but the extended forms were much used as variants (more clearly distinguished from Grade 1) of Grades 3 and 4.

Grade 5 (1720) was usually applied to the nasal consonants: thus 17 and 18 were the most common signs for n n and and m. m. According to the principle observed above, Grade 6 should then have represented the voiceless nasals; but since such sounds (exemplified by Welsh According to the principle observed above, Grade 6 should then have represented the voiceless nasals; but since such sounds (exemplified by Welsh nh nh or ancient English or ancient English hn hn) were of very rare occurrence in the languages concerned, Grade 6 (2124) was most often used for the weakest or 'semi-vocalic' consonants of each series. It consisted of the smallest and simplest shapes among the primary letters. Thus 21 was often used for a weak (untrilled) r r, originally occurring in Quenya and regarded in the system of that language as the weakest consonant of the tincotema tincotema; 22 was widely used for w w; where Series III was used as a palatal series 23 was commonly used as consonantal y y. 1 1 Since some of the consonants of Grade 4 tended to become weaker in p.r.o.nunciation, and to approach or to merge with those of Grade 6 (as described above), many of the latter ceased to have a clear function in the Eldarin languages; and it was from these letters that the letters expressing vowels were largely derived.

NOTE.

The standard spelling of Quenya diverged from the applications of the letters above described. Grade 2 was used for nd nd, mb mb, ng ng, ngw ngw, all of which were frequent, since b b, g g, gw gw only appeared in these combinations, while for only appeared in these combinations, while for rd rd, ld ld the special letters 26, 28 were used. (For the special letters 26, 28 were used. (For lv lv, not for lw lw, many speakers, especially Elves, used lb lb: this was written with 27+6, since lmb lmb could not occur.) Similarly, Grade 4 was used for the extremely frequent combinations could not occur.) Similarly, Grade 4 was used for the extremely frequent combinations nt nt, mp mp, nk nk, nqu nqu, since Quenya did not possess dh dh, gh gh, ghw ghw, and for v v used letter 22. See the Quenya letter-names pp. used letter 22. See the Quenya letter-names pp. 1474 14745.

The additional letters. No. 27 was universally used for No. 27 was universally used for l l. No. 25 (in origin a modification of 21) was used for 'full' trilled r r. Nos. 26, 28 were modifications of these. They were frequently used for voiceless r r ( (rh) and l l ( (lh) respectively. But in Quenya they were used for rd rd and and ld. ld. 29 represented 29 represented s s, and 31 (with doubled curl) z z in those languages that required it. The inverted forms, 30 and 32, though available for use as separate signs, were mostly used as mere variants of 29 and 31, according to the convenience of writing, e.g. they were much used when accompanied by superimposed in those languages that required it. The inverted forms, 30 and 32, though available for use as separate signs, were mostly used as mere variants of 29 and 31, according to the convenience of writing, e.g. they were much used when accompanied by superimposed tehtar tehtar.

No. 33 was in origin a variation representing some (weaker) variety of 11; its most frequent use in the Third Age was h. h. 34 was mostly used (if at all) for voiceless 34 was mostly used (if at all) for voiceless w w ( (hw). 35 and 36 were, when used as consonants, mostly applied to y y and and w w respectively. respectively.

The vowels were in many modes represented by were in many modes represented by tehtar tehtar, usually set above a consonantal letter. In languages such as Quenya, in which most words ended in a vowel, the tehta tehta was placed above the preceding consonant; in those such as Sindarin, in which most words ended in a consonant, it was placed above the following consonant. When there was no consonant present in the required position, the was placed above the preceding consonant; in those such as Sindarin, in which most words ended in a consonant, it was placed above the following consonant. When there was no consonant present in the required position, the tehta tehta was placed above the 'short carrier', of which a common form was like an undotted i. The actual was placed above the 'short carrier', of which a common form was like an undotted i. The actual tehtar tehtar used in different languages for vowel-signs were numerous. The commonest, usually applied to (varieties of) used in different languages for vowel-signs were numerous. The commonest, usually applied to (varieties of) e e, i i, a a, o o, u u, are exhibited in the examples given. The three dots, most usual in formal writing for a a, were variously written in quicker styles, a form like a circ.u.mflex being often employed. 1 1 The single dot and the 'acute accent' were frequently used for The single dot and the 'acute accent' were frequently used for i i and and e e (but in some modes for (but in some modes for e e and and i i). The curls were used for o o and and u u. In the Ring-inscription the curl open to the right is used for u u; but on the t.i.tle-page this stands for o o, and the curl open to the left for u u. The curl to the right was favoured, and the application depended on the language concerned: in the Black Speech o o was rare. was rare.

Long vowels were usually represented by placing the tehta tehta on the 'long carrier', of which a common form was like an undotted on the 'long carrier', of which a common form was like an undotted j j. But for the same purpose the tehtar tehtar could be doubled. This was, however, only frequently done with the curls, and sometimes with the 'accent'. Two dots was more often used as a sign for following could be doubled. This was, however, only frequently done with the curls, and sometimes with the 'accent'. Two dots was more often used as a sign for following y y.