Part 10 (1/2)
[*]The hoplite's panoply (see description later) was sufficiently expensive to imply that its owner was at least a man in tolerable circ.u.mstances.
88. The Cavalry and the Peltasts.--There are certain divisions of the army besides the hoplites and this somewhat ineffective light infantry. There is a cavalry corps of 1000. Wealthy young Athenians are proud to volunteer therein; it is a sign of wealth to be able to provide your war horse. The cavalry too is given the place of honor in the great religious processions; and there is plenty of chance for exciting scouting service on the campaign. Again, the cavalry service has something to commend it in that it is accounted MUCH SAFER than the infantry![*] The cavalry is, however, a rather feeble fighting instrument. Greek riders have no saddles and no stirrups. They are merely mounted on thin horse pads, and it is very hard to grip the horse with the knees tightly enough to keep from being upset ignominiously while wielding the spear. The best use for the cavalry perhaps is for the riders to take a sheaf of javelins, ride up and discharge them at the foe as skirmishers, then fall back behind the hoplites; though after the battle the hors.e.m.e.n will have plenty to do in the retreat or the pursuit.
[*]Greeks could seldom have been brought to imitate the reckless medieval cavaliers. The example of Leonidas at Thermopylae was more commended than imitated. Outside of Sparta at least, few Greeks would have hesitated to flee from a battlefield, when the day (despite their proper exertions) had been wholly lost.
The Athenians have of course the Scythian police archers to send into any battle near Athens; they can also hire mercenary archers from Crete, but the Greek bows are relatively feeble, only three or four feet long--by no means equal to the terrible yew bows which will win glory for England in the Middle Ages. There has also come into vogue, especially since the Peloponnesian war, an improved kind of light-javelin-men,--the ”Peltasts,”--with small s.h.i.+elds, and light armor, but with extra long lances. In recent warfare this type of soldier, carefully trained and agile, has been known to defeat bodies of the old-style over-enc.u.mbered hoplites.[*]
Nevertheless, most veteran soldiers still believe that the heavy infantryman is everything, and the backbone of nearly every Greek army is still surely the hoplite. He will continue to be the regular fighting unit until the improved ”phalanx,” and the ”Companion Cavalry” of Philip and Alexander of Macedon teach the captains of the world new lessons.
[*]Especially the Athenian general Iphicrates was able to cut to pieces a ”mora” (brigade) of Spartan hoplites, in 392 B.C., by skillful use of a force of peltasts.
89. The Panoply of the Hoplite.--We have pa.s.sed out one of the gates and are very likely in a convenient open s.p.a.ce south and east of the city stretching away toward the ever visible slopes of gray Hymettus. Here is a suitable parade ground. The citizen soldiers are slipping on their helmets and tightening up their cuira.s.ses.
Trumpets blow from time to time to give orders to ”fall in” among the respective ”lochoi” and ”taxeis.” There is plenty of time to study the arms and armor of the hoplites during these preliminaries.
A very brief glance at the average infantryman's defensive weapons tells us that to be able to march, maneuver, and fight efficiently in this armor implies that the Athenian soldier is a well-trained athlete. The whole panoply weighs many pounds.[*] The prime parts in the armor are the helmet, the cuira.s.s, the greaves, and the s.h.i.+eld. Every able-bodied citizen of moderate means has this outfit hanging in his andronitis, and can don it at brief notice.
The HELMET is normally of bronze; it is cut away enough in front to leave the face visible, but sometimes a cautious individual will insist on having movable plates (which can be turned up and down) to protect the cheeks.[+] Across the top there runs a firm metal ridge to catch any hard down-right blow, and set into the ridge is a tall nodding crest either of horsehair or of bright feathers--in either case the joy and glory of the wearer.
[*]Possibly fifty or more--we have no correct means for an exact estimate. [A note from Brett: Looking at web sites where reconstruction of the armor has been done and estimates made (ca.
1999) there seems to be a consistent top end of 70 pounds. Scholarly circles (e.g. Rudolph Storch of the University of Maryland) seem to lock the estimate more tightly, with the consensus saying that a fully armored Hoplite carried between 60 and 70 pounds. Most of this weight seems to be in the cuira.s.s, which in some cases was linen and weighed only 10-15 pounds (the actual thickness is unknown, so the broad range of weight estimate covers the minimum to maximum reasonable thickness). For reference, a modern (2000) soldier is generally limited to 50 pounds of gear when fighting and 70 pounds when marching.]
[+]The ”Corinthian” type of helmets came more closely over the face, and the cheek protectors were not movable; these helmets were much like the closed helms of the medieval knights. The Spartans, in their contempt for danger, wore plain pointed steel caps which gave relatively little protection.
Buckled around the soldier's body is the CUIRa.s.s. It comprises a breastplate and a back piece of bronze, joined by thongs, or by straps with a buckle. The metal comes down to the hips. Below it hangs a thick fringe of stout strips of leather strengthened with bright metallic studs, and reaching halfway to the knees. From this point to the knees the legs are bare, but next come the GREAVES, thin pliable plates of bronze fitted to the shape of the leg, and opening at the back. They have to be slipped on, and then are fastened at the knees and ankle with leathern straps.
But the warrior's main protection is his s.h.i.+ELD. With a strong, large s.h.i.+eld you can fight pa.s.sing well without any regular body armor; while with the best outfit of the latter you are highly vulnerable without your s.h.i.+eld. To know how to swing your s.h.i.+eld so as to catch every possible blow, to know how to push and lunge with it against an enemy, to know how to knock a man down with it, if needs be, THAT is a good part of the soldier's education. The s.h.i.+eld is sometimes round, but more often oval. It is about four feet by the longest diameter. It is made of several layers of heavy bull's hide, firmly corded and riveted together, and has a good metal rim and metal boss in the center. On the inside are two handles so that it can be conveniently wielded on the left arm.[*]
These s.h.i.+elds are brilliantly painted, and although the Greeks have no heraldic devices, there are all manner of badges and distinguis.h.i.+ng marks in vogue. Thus all Theban s.h.i.+elds are blazoned with a club; Sicyonian s.h.i.+elds are marked with the initial ”Sigma” (S), and we note that the Athenian s.h.i.+elds are all marked Alpha (A).[+]
[*]Earlier Greek s.h.i.+elds seem to have been very large and correspondingly heavy. These had only a single handle; and to aid in s.h.i.+fting them they were swung on straps pa.s.sed over the left shoulder.
[+]This last is a matter of safe inference rather than of positive information.
90. The Weapons of a Hoplite.--The hoplites have donned their armor. Now they a.s.sume their offensive weapons. Every man has a lance and a sword. The LANCE is a stout weapon with a solid wooden b.u.t.t, about six feet long in all. It is really too heavy to use as a javelin. It is most effective as a pike thrust fairly into a foeman's face, or past his s.h.i.+eld into a weak spot in his cuira.s.s.
The sword is usually kept as a reserve weapon in case the lance gets broken. It is not over 25 inches in length, making rather a huge double-edged vicious knife than a saber; but it is terrible for cut and thrust work at very close quarters. Simple as these weapons are, they are fearful instruments of slaughter in well-trained hands, and the average Greek has spent a considerable part of his life in being taught how to use them.
91. Infantry Maneuvers.--The final trumpets have blown, and the troops fall into their places. Each tribal ”taxis” lines up its ”lochoi.” The Greeks have no flags nor standards. There is a great deal of shouting by the subaltern officers, and running up and down the ranks. Presently everything is in formal array. The hoplites stand in close order, each man about two feet from the next,[*] leaving no gaps between each division from end to end of the lines. The men are set in eight long ranks. This is the normal ”phalanx”[+] order. Only those in front can actually lunge and strike at the enemy. The men in the rear will add to the battering force of the charge, and crowding in closely, wedge themselves promptly to the front, when any of the first rank goes down.
[*]The object would be to give each man just enough distance to let him make fair use of his lance, and yet have his s.h.i.+eld overlap that of his neighbor.
[+]The ”phalanx” is sometimes spoken of as a Macedonian invention, but Philip and Alexander simply improved upon an old Greek military formation.
It is an imposing sight when the strategos in charge of the maneuvers, a stately man in a red chlamys, gives the final word ”March!”
Loud pipes begin screaming. The long lines of red, blue, and orange plumes nod fiercely together. The sun strikes fire out of thousands of brandished lance tips. The phalanx goes swinging away over the dusty parade ground, the subalterns up and down the files muttering angrily to each inapt recruit to ”Keep your distance:” or ”Don't advance your s.h.i.+eld.” The commandant duly orders the ”Half turn:”
”Left” or ”Right turn:” ”Formation by squares,” and finally the critical ”Change front to rear.” If this last maneuver is successfully accomplished, the strategos will compliment the drill sergeants; for it is notoriously difficult to turn a ponderous phalanx around and yet make it keep good order. The drilling goes on until the welcome order comes, ”Ground arms!” and every perspiring soldier lets his heavy s.h.i.+eld slip from his arm upon the ground.
92. The Preliminaries of a Greek Battle.--Later in the day, if these are happy times of peace, the whole phalanx, so bristling and formidable, will have resolved itself into its harmless units of honest citizens all streaming home for dinner.