Part 80 (1/2)

341); in Italy, where divergent racial types are being fused into a new national unity; in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines (R 343) where the United States has used education to bring backward peoples up to a new level of culture, and to develop in them firm foundations of national solidarity; in China (R 335) where an ancient people, speaking nu the difficult transition froiers and Morocco, where the spirit of French nationality is being fused into dark-skinned tribesmen-- everywhere to-day, where public education has really taken hold on the national life, we find the school being used for the promotion of national solidarity and the inculcation of national ideals and national culture To such an extent has this beco problems of the school to-day, in any land, find their ultimate explanation in terms of the new nineteenth-century conceptions of political nationality

Since the develop rail and stea which people as well as raw materials and manufactured articles pass to and fro, the entrance of new and diverse peoples into distant national groups has created a new problem of nationalization that before the early nineteenth century was largely unknown Previous to the nineteenth century the problem was confined almost entirely to peoples conquered and annexed by the fortunes of war

To-day it is a voluntary ration of such proportions and from such distant and unlike civilizations that the problener has beco nations and colonies, to which distant and unrelated peoples have turned in largest nuration of 32,102,671 persons to the United States, between 1820 and 1914, from all parts of the world, has been a rations of the Geroths, Vandals, Suevi, Danes, Burgundians, Huns--into the old Ronificance

No such great movement of peoples was ever known before in history, and the assimilative power of the American nation has not been equal to the task The World War revealed the extent of the failure to nationalize the foreigner who has been perht the question of ”A problems connected with American national education With the world in flux racially as it now is, the problem of the assimilation of non-native peoples is one which the schools of every nation which offers political and economic opportunity to other peoples anization of special classes in the schools, evening and adult instruction, coraht of private and religious schools, and other fors undreamed of in the days when the State first took over the schools from the Church the better to promote literacy and citizenshi+p

EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The effects of the great industrial and social changes which we have previously described are written large across the work of the school As the civilization in the leading world nations has increased in complexity, and the ramifications of the social and industrial life have widened, the school has been called upon to broaden its work, and develop new types of instruction to increase its effectiveness An education which was entirely satisfactory for the sio has been seen to be utterly inadequate for the needs of the present and the future

It is the far-reaching change in social and industrial and hoht about by the Industrial Revolution, which underliesproblems in educational readjustment to-day As the industrial life of nations has become more diversified, its parts narrower, and its processeshas been called for to prepare young people for the work of life; to reveal to the of the intricacy and interdependence of roups; and to point out to them the importance of each one's part in the national political and industrial organization

With the ever-increasing subdivision and specialization of labor, the danger from class subdivision has constantly increased, and more and more the school has been called upon to instill into all a political and social consciousness that will lead to unity a diversity, and to concerted action for the preservation and improvement of the national life

More education than formerly has also been deently national and personal problee and the spread of de of the educational ladder, so that more of thethe continental- European two-class school systeer educational opportunities for the h the provision of her prih schools, [3] as in Gerram, p 598), the Scandinavian countries (p 713; R 370), and japan (p 720) In nations having an American-type educational ladder, it has led to the multiplication of secondary schools and secondary-school courses, that a larger and larger percentage of the people ly coly difficult conditions of modern political, social, and industrial life In the more advanced and more democratic nations we also note the establish schools, adult instruction, university extension, science and art instruction in special centers, theuse of the lecture, the stereopticon, and the public press, for the purpose of keeping the people infores of secondary education to its people than has the United States; France has been especially proland has done noteworthy ith university extension and science and art instruction; while the United States has carried the library ain, are extensions of educational opportunity to the o

UNIVERSITY EXPANSION The modern university first attained its developland and in the nations which drew their inspiration froe of studies and disciplinary instruction (R 331), continued to doher education until past the middle of the nineteenth century (R 359)

The old universities of France, aside from Paris, were virtually destroyed in the days of the Revolution, and their re-creation as effective teaching and research institutions has been a relatively recent (1896) event The universities of Italy and Spain ceased to be effective teaching institutions centuries ago, and only recently have begun to give evidences of new life

Within the past three quarters of a century, and in many nations within a enerally experienced a new manifestation of popular favor, and is to-day looked upon as perhaps the most important part, viewed from the standpoint of the future welfare of the State, of the entire system of public instruction maintained by the State In it the leaders for the State are trained; in it the thinking which is to doely done; out of it coeniuses whose work, in dozens of fields of human endeavor, will mould the political, social, and scientific future of the nation (R 369) Every govern upon a two-class school systeovernment, in pure and applied science, and in many other lines from the small but carefully selected classes its universities train In a de its future leaders fro the mass, the university beco of leaders and for the proovernhest functions of a university is to educate leaders and to create the standards for dely, in all lands, recently experienced a great expansion The German universities have been prominent , as no other people have done, their value in developing skilled leaders for the State, pro the E students of other nationalities a good-will toward Gere sums have been spent on their further development since 1871 Within the past quarter-century new and strong French universities have been created, [4] and old universities in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Greece have been awakened to a new life The English universities have been made over, since 1870, and new municipal universities in Sheffield, Bristol, Leeds, Manchester, Birlish higher education The universities of Scotland, Holland, Switzerland, and the Scandinavian countries have also recently attained to world prominence In Australia, New Zealand, japan, China, the Philippines, India, Egypt, Palestine, Algiers, and South Africa, new universities have been created to advance the national welfare The South A new foundations, and given new life to older ones Often nations swinging out into the current of western civilization have developed their universities before popular education really got under way

In no country has the development of university instruction been more rapid than in the United States and Canada New and important state universities are to-day found in most of the A two These have been relatively recent creations to serve democracy's needs, and upon the support of these state universities large and increasing sums of money are spent annually [5] In no nation of the world, too, has private benevolence created and endowed so h rank as in the United States, [6] and these have fallen into their proper places as auxiliary agents for the proovernment, science, art, and the learned professions

Froiate institutions with a very lio, sti to new national needs, universities to-day, in all the leading world nations, have developed into groups of well-organized professional schools, reat nuovernment The university developreater than at any period before in world history, and with the spread of democracy, dependent as democracy is upon mass education to obtain its leaders, the university has become ”the soul of the State” (R 369) The university development of the next half- century, the world as a whole considered,that we have recently witnessed

THE STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS AS ORGANIZED We now find state school syste world nations In many the systeinning often with infant schools or kindergartens, continuing up through elementary schools, middle schools, continuation schools, secondary schools, and nor in one or more state universities In addition there are to- day, in many nations, state systems of scientific and technical schools and institutions, and vocational schools and schools for special classes, to which we shall refer more in detail a little further on The support of all these systeely from the direct or indirect taxation of the wealth of the State Being now conceived of as essential to the welfare and progress of the State, the State yearly confiscates a portion of every man's property and uses it to maintain a service deemed vital to its purposes

The sums spent to-day on education by modern States seem enormous, compared with the suo In England, for exaranted, in 1833, in the forrant of 20,000 (approxirants for elementary schools had reached approximately 12,000,000 by 1910, with an additional national aid for universities of over 1,100,000 The year following the World War the grants were 32,853,111 In France a treasury grant of 50,000 francs (approximately 10,000) was first made for primary schools, in 1816 This was doubled in 1829, and in 1831 was raised to a million francs By 1850, the state aid for primary education had reached 3,000,000 francs; by 1870, 10,000,000 francs; by 1880, 30,000,000; and by 1914, approxi out 25,000,000 francs for secondary schools, and 10,000,000 francs for universities In the United States the total expenditures for maintenance only of public elementary and secondary schools was 69,107,612, in 1870-71; had reached 214,964,618 by the end of the nineteenth century; and was 640,717,053 in 1915-16, with an additional 101,752,542 for universities By 1920 the total expenditures for the her education in the United States will probably total a billion dollars These rapidly increasing expenditurespolitical conception as to the national i the educational opportunities and advantages of those who are to constitute and direct the future State

II SCIENTIFIC

In no phase of the remarkable educational development made by nations, since the middle of the nineteenth century, has there been a more important expansion of the educational service than in the creation of schools dealing with the applications of science to the affairs of the national life Still more, no extension of instruction into new fields has ever yielded material benefits, increased productivity, alleviated suffering, or multiplied comforts and conveniences as has this new develop the past three quarters of a century

SCIENCE INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS At first this neork came in, as we have seen (p 774), but slowly, and its introduction into the secondary schools of France, Gerland, the United States, and other nations for a time met with bitter opposition fro In Germany it was not until after Emperor William II came to the throne (1888) that the _Realschulen_ really found a war (1890), in the name of the national welfare, that the secondary schools ”depart entirely from the basis that has existed for centuries--the oldGer Greeks and Ron the _Realschulen_ (six-year course) and _Oberrealschulen_ (nine-year course) were especially favored, while permission to found additional _Gymnasien_ became hard to obtain The scientific course in the French _Lycees_ si of the Third Republic (1871) and the rise of land it was not until after 1870 that the endowed secondary schools began to include science instruction, and laboratory instruction in the sciences began to be introduced into the secondary schools of the United States at about the sa high school was not established until 1880, but by 1890 the creation of such schools was clearly under way Other nations--Switzerland, Holland, the Scandinavian countries--also began to include laboratory science instruction in the work of their secondary schools at about the sa interest in instruction in science which carried such work into the secondary schools of all progressive nations

To-day, in nearly all lands, we find secondary-school courses in science, or special secondary schools for scientific instruction, occupying a position of at least equal importance with the older classical courses or schools As science instruction has becoe of the principles of science has become diffused, object lessons, _Realien_, nature study, or eleenerally been put into the eleer pupils As a result, young people finishi+ng the ele to the laws of the universe, and the applications of these laws to huuished scholars two centuries ago

All this work in the eleh schools, secondary schools, or special technical schools ofscientific knowledge and scientific e nu to reat and important development of scientific instruction, however, since about 1860, has been in the fields of advanced applied science or technical education, and has taken place chiefly in new and higher specialized schools and research foundations The fields in which the greatest scientific advances have been ineering, agriculture, and innings of technical education were made earliest in France, Germany, and the United States, and in the order named France and Gerh the monasteries what survived of the old Roes, roads, fortifications, aqueducts, and is, the Roh order Soe was retained by the es, as is evidenced by the monasteries they erected and the churches they built Later it passed to others, and is evidenced in the great cathedrals and town halls of Europe, and particularly of northern France Inthe French were also the true successors of the Roes and highways (_ecole des Ponts et Chaussees_) had been created, and a little later a special school to train ineers (_ecole des Mines_) was added These were the first of the world's higher technical schools After the Revolution, the new need for eneral French interest in applied science, led to the creation of a large nuher technical institutions (list, p 518), ed and extended with time Napoleon also created a School of Arts and Trades (R 282), and a number of military schools (p 590)

In German lands there was early founded a series of trade schools, [7]

which have in time been developed into important technical universities

After the creation of the Imperial German Eovernment, and their as raised to a rank equal to that of the older universities To the excellent training given in these institutions the German leadershi+p in applied science and industry, before 1914, was largely due [8] It has been the particular function of these technical universities to apply scientific knowledge to the industries and the arts, and to show the technical schools beneath and the directors of German industries how further to apply it (R 371) Of their work a recent _Report_ [9] well says:

While in other countries the development of science has been academic, in Germany every new principle elaborated by science has revolutionized so process, or opened up an entirely new field of commercial exploitation In the chemical industries of Germanythere is one trained university che-people It is important to realize that the development of Germany's manufactures and commerce has depended not upon the establishment of any monopoly in the domain of science, not upon any special advancement of science within her own boundaries, but primarily upon the practical utilization of the results of scientific research in Germany and other countries