Part 77 (2/2)
The introduction of manual work into the elementary schools came a little later, and a little men's School, founded by the Ethical Culture Society of New York, had provided a kindergarten and had extended the kindergarten constructive-work idea upward, in the for, into its elementary school In the public schools, experi were tried in one school in Boston, as early as 1882, the expense being borne privately In 1888 the city took over these classes In 1886 a teacher was brought to Boston fro school which has been very influential was established there, in 1889 In 1876 Massachusetts perfield introduced such instruction in 1884, and elementary-school instruction in knifework in 1886
Froh at first rather slowly By 1900 approximately forty cities, nearly all of theroup of States, had introduced work inand the household arts into their elementary schools, but since that time the work has been extended to practically all cities, and to many towns and rural communities as well
[Illustration: FIG 228 REDIRECTED MANUAL TRAINING A boya mortice-joint ]
CONTRIBUTION OF THE MANUAL-ACTIVITIES IDEA These new forrounds of for, exercised the powers of observation, and strengthened the will The ”exercises,” true to such a conception, were quite formal and unifory,” and the abandone part of the doctrine of for of theand household-arts work has had to be reshaped As the writings of Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel were studied ained froy, these new subjects caht as means of individual expression, and to be extended to new forms, materials, colors, and new practical and artistic ends To-day the instruction in manual work and the household arts in all their fored tothe fields of art and industry and honificance and usefulness Through these t forms of education, also, the pupils in the ele in expression and an insight into the practical work of life impossible in the old textbook type of elearten, manual work, and the household arts, Froebel's principle of education through directed self- activity and self-expression has borne abundant fruit
In the hands of French, English, and Areatly expanded In France sorades of the primary school, and the work has been closely connected with art and industry on the one hand and with the holand the project system as applied to industry, and the household arts with reference to home-life, have been emphasized In the United States the work has been individualized perhaps more than anywhere else, applied in many new directions--clay, leather, cement, metal--and used as a very important instrument for self-expression and the develop
IV THE ADDITION OF SCIENCE STUDY
THE GRADUAL EXTENSION OF THE INTEREST IN SCIENCE A very prominent feature of world educational development, since about the eneral introduction into the schools of the study of science It is no exaggeration of the importance of this to say that no addition of new subject-e in the direction and purpose of education, since that tireater inificant of neorld conditions, than has been the emphasis recently placed, in all divisions of state school systems, on instruction in the principles and the applications of science
From the days of Francis Bacon (p 390) on, the study of science has been ress The early history ofthe seventeenth century English scholars were ely to the greater tolerance of new ideas there, and the University of Cae early attained to some reputation (p 423) as a place where instruction in the new scientific studies hteenth century, in large part due to the illureat interest in science arose aly find the French creating iave frequent evidence of his deep interest in scientific studies [24] This interest the French have since retained
From France this new interest in science passed quickly to the Germans
The new mathematical and physical studies had early found a hoely under French influences scientific studies were later introduced into all the German universities
Early in the nineteenth century the German universities took the lead as centers for the new scientific studies (p 576)--a lead they retained throughout the century In England the universities had, by the nineteenth century, lost much of their seventeenth-century proes, instead of developing, as had the German universities, into institutions for scientific research Compared with the reformed German universities, actuated by the new scientific spirit, the English universities of the mid-nineteenth century presented a very unfavorable [25] aspect (R 359) In the United States, book instruction in the sciences cahteenth century, but the first laboratory instruction in our colleges was not begun until 1846, and our real interest in science teaching dates fro of German influences, after the ely followed English models and practices
Yet, as we pointed out earlier, the early nineteenth century witnessed a vast expansion of scientific knowledge, and by 1860 the main keys of modern science (p 727) were in the hands of scholars everywhere The great early development of scientific study had been carried on in a few universities or had been done by independent scholars, and had influenced but little instruction in the colleges or the schools below
SCIENCE INSTRUCTION REACHES THE SCHOOLS BUT SLOWLY The textbook organization of this new scientific knowledge, for teaching purposes, and its incorporation into the instruction of the schools, took place but slowly
1 _The elereatest and the earliest success was made in German lands There the pioneer work of Basedow (p 534) and the Philanthropinists had awakened a widespread interest in scientific studies In Switzerland, too, Pestalozzi had developed eleraphy, and, when Pestalozzian methods were introduced into the schools of Prussia, the study of elementary science (_Realien_) soon became a feature of the _Volksschule_ instruction Froland the Pestalozzian idea was introduced into the Infant Schools, [27] though in a very for of object lessons In this form elementary science study reached the United States, about 1860, though a decade later well- organized courses in elean to be introduced into the American elementary schools [28]
After the political reaction following the Napoleonic wars had set in, on the continent of Europe, all thought-provoking studies were greatly curtailed in the people's schools In England, for other reasons, object lessons did not make anyrelating to the great neorld of scientific knowledge had as yet been introduced into the private and religious elementary schools (R 360) which, up to that tiland's chief dependence for the elementary instruction of her people
2 _The secondary schools_ In the secondary schools the earliest work of i the new scientific subjects was done by the Germans and the French In German lands the _Realschule_ obtained an early start (1747; p 420), and the instruction in un to be adopted by the German secondary schools, especially in the South Ger the reign of Napoleon the scientific course in the French _Lycees_ was given special pro until after 1848, practical and thought-provoking studies were under an official ban in both countries, and classical studies were specially favored [30] Finally, in 1852 in France and in 1859 in Prussia, responding to changed political conditions and new economic demands, both the scientific course in the _Lycees_ and the _Realschulen_ were given official recognition, and thereafter received increasing state favor and support The scientific idea also took deep root in Denmark There the secondary schools were iven an iain in 1850, when many of the Latin schools were transformed into _Realskoler_
In the United States the acadeh schools both had introduced quite an amount of mathematics and book-science, [31] and, after about 1875, the developh schools took place rather rapidly Fellenberg's work in Switzerland (p 546) had also awakened much interest in the United States, and by 1830 a nuun to appear [32] These made instruction in mathematics and science proland attained to the first place as an industrial and coitation on the part of manufacturers for some science and art instruction In 1853, Parliament created a State Department of Science and Art (p 638), and the prorants was now begun Though the nation had been the first to be transforn trade by 1850 reached all parts of the world, the secondary schools of England had ree They were still rammar schools they had been ever since Dean Colet (1510)his reforrammar school at St Pauls (p 275) Their courses of instruction contained little that was modern, and in their aims and purposes they went back to the days of the Revival of Learning for their inspiration (R
361)
THE CHALLENGE OF HERBERT SPENCER By the middle of the nineteenth century the scientific and industrial revolutions had produced i in all the then important world nations
Particularly in the Gerland, and the United States had the effects of the revolutions inbeen felt
In consequence there had been, for so controversy between the partisans of the older classical training and the newer scientific studies as to their relative worth and importance, both for intellectual discipline and as preparation for intelligent living, and by the middle of the nineteenth century this had becoy,” upon which the theory of the discipline of the powers of the ely based, was attacked, and the contention was advanced that the content of studies was of more importance in education than was method and drill The advocates of the newer studies contended that a study of the classics no longer provided a suitable preparation for intelligent living, and the question of the relative worth of the older and newer studies elicited more and more discussion as the century advanced
[Illustration: FIG 229 HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)]
In 1859 one of England's greatest scholars, Herbert Spencer, brought the whole question to a sharp issue by the publication of a ree is of Most Worth?” In this he declared that the purpose of education was to ”prepare us for coe of the value of an educational course was first to classify, in the order of their i activities and needs of life, and then measure the course of study by how fully it offers such a preparation Doing so (R 362), and applying such a test, he concluded that of all subjects a knowledge of science (R 363) ”was always most useful for preparation for life,” and therefore the type of knowledge of most worth In three other essays [34] he recoe frolish secondary education since the days of the Renaissance Stilleducated by a ”cultural discipline” for a life of learning and leisure, he urged general instruction in science, that alland help for the daily duties of life
These essays attracted wide attention, not only in England but in many other lands as well They were a statelish, of the best ideas of the educational reformers for three centuries In his statement of the principles upon which sound intellectual education should be based he merely enunciated theses for which educational reformers had stood since the days of Ratke and Comenius In his treatment of moral and physical education he voiced the best ideas of John Locke Spencer's great service was in giving forceful expression to ideas which, by 1860, had beco he pushed to the front anew the question of educational values The scientific and industrial revolutions had prepared the way for a redirection of national education, and the tiland, France, German lands, and the United States for such a discussion As a result, though the questions he raised are still in part unsettled, a great change in assigned values has since been effected not only in these nations, but in most other nations and lands which have drawn the inspiration for their educational systeinal, we reat writers on educational aireat influences in reshaping educational practice
He gave a new emphasis to the work of all who had preceded hireatly enlarged estimate as to the importance of science study in all divisions of the school
[Illustration: FIG 230 THOMAS H HUXLEY (1825-95)]
THE NEW EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE It is perhaps not too -up and forceful statement of the best ideas of his time, and the discussion which followed, a new conception of the educational purpose as adjustment to the life one is to live--physical, economic, social, moral, political--was clearly formulated, and a new definition of a liberal education was framed The former found expression in a rather rapid introduction of science-study into the elee, after about 1865, in the school systeressive nations, and the subsequent extension of the scientific overnment, and social welfare The latter--the new definition of a liberal education --onderfully well stated in an address (1868) by the English scientist, Thomas Huxley, when he said: [35]