Part 76 (1/2)
Then the proble the elements of every art into harical mechanical laws by which mind rises froely out of these ideas and the new direction he gave to instruction theteachers for the elementary schools arose
ORAL AND OBJECTIVE TEACHING DEVELOPED Up to the time of Pestalozzi, and for years after he had done his work, in many lands and places the instruction of children continued to be of the memorization of textbook matter and of the recitation type The children learned as down in the book, and recited the answers to the teacher Many of the early textbooks were constructed on the plan of the older Catechism--that is, on a question and answer plan (R 351 a) There was nothing for children to do but to memorize such textbook material, or for the teacher but to see that the pupils knew the answers to the questions It was school-keeping, not teaching, that teachers were engaged in
The form of instruction worked out by Pestalozzi, based on sense- perception, reasoning, and individual judge in classrooet children to use their senses and their et, by means of their five important senses, clear impressions and ideas as to objects and life in the world about them, and then to think over what they had seen and be able to answer his questions, because they had observed carefully and reasoned clearly
Pestalozzi thus clearly subordinated the printed book to the use of the child's senses, and the repetition of s Pestalozzi thus became one of the first real teachers
This was an entirely new process, and for the first time in history a real ”technique of instruction” was now called for Dependence on the words of the text could no longer be relied upon The oral instruction of a class group, using real objects, called for teaching skill The class must be kept naturally interested and under control; the essential eleht must be kept clearly in the ht kind of questions, in the right order, to carry the class thinking along to the right conclusions; and, since so much of this type of instruction was not down in books, it called for a e of the subject on the part of the teacher than the old type of school-keeping had done The teacher anize and direct Class lessons ht out in advance, and teacher-preparation in itselfprocedure
Emancipated from dependence on the words of a text, and able to stand before a class full of a subject and able to question freely, teachers becath and a professional skill unknown in the days of textbook reciting Out of such teaching cae, eleraphy, , to add to the old instruction in the Catechis, and all these new subjects, taught according to Pestalozzian ideas as to purpose, called for an individual technique of instruction
[Illustration: FIG 224 THE FIRST MODERN NORMAL SCHOOL The old castle at Yverdon, where Pestalozzi's Institute was conducted and his greatest success achieved]
THE NORMAL SCHOOL FINDS ITS PLACE These new ideas of Pestalozzi proved so i the first five or six decades of the nineteenth century the elementary school was made over The new conception of the child as a slowly developing personality, dee of developschool,” now replaced the earlier knowledge- conception of school work Where before the ability to organize and discipline a school had constituted the chief art of instruction, now the ability to teach scientifically took its place as the pri now arose; reat subject; the new subject of pedagogy began to take for science of the school
As these changes took place, the nor countries of Europe and in the United States, and in time has established itself everywhere as an important educational institution
Pestalozzi had hi school, and his as soon copied in a number of the Swiss cantons
Other cantons, on the contrary, for a ti to do with the new idea
1 _The Gerh, to take up the teacher- training idea and establish it as an iinning in 1809 with the work of Zeller (p 569), by 1840 there were thirty-eight Teachers' Seminaries, as the normal schools in German lands have been called, in Prussia alone The idea was also quickly taken up by the other German States, and from the first decade of the nineteenth century on no nation has done more with the normal school, or used it, ends desired considered, to better advantage than have the Germans One of the features of the Prussian schools which most impressed Professor Bache, when he visited the schools of the German States in 1838, was the excellence of the Seminaries for Teachers (R 344), and these he described (R 345) in some detail in his Report Horace Mann, similarly, on his visit to Europe, in 1843, was iiven prospective teachers in the Teachers' Seical seminars were also established early (c 1810) [3] in the universities, for the training of secondary teachers, and this training was continued with increasing thoroughness up to 1914 Every teacher in the German States, elementary or secondary, before that date, was a carefully-trained teacher This was a feature of the German state school systems of the pre-War period of which no other nation could boast
2 _France_ After the German States, France probably comes next as the nation in which the nor teachers The Superior Normal School had been recreated in 1808 (R 283), and after the downfall of Napoleon the creation of norun Twelve had been established by 1830, and between 1830 and 1833 thirty additional schools for training these teachers were begun (R 285) These rendered a service for France (R 346) quite similar to that rendered by the Teachers' Se the period of reaction, from 1848 to 1870, the normal school did not prosper in France, but since 1870 a normal school to train elementary teachers has been established for hty-seven departments into which France, for administrative purposes, has been divided Satisfactory provision has also beenof teachers for the secondary schools
3 _The United States_ The United States has also been prominent, especially since about 1870, in the develop of elementary teachers The Lancastrian schools had trainedschool in the United States to give training to individual teachers was opened privately, [4] in 1823, and the second in a similar manner, [5] in 1827
These were al in the nature of tuition high schools, with a little practice teaching and so” added in the last year of the course In 1826 Governor Clinton recoislature of New York the establishment by the State of ”a seminary for the education of teachers in theof this, in 1827 he recommended the creation of ”a central school in each county for the education of teachers” (R 349) That year (1827) the New York legislature appropriated money to aid the academies ”to promote the education of teachers”--the first state aid in the United States for teacher-training
The publication of an English edition of Cousin's _Report_ (p 597; R
284) in New York, in 1835; Calvin E Stowe's _Report on Elementary Education in Europe_, [6] in 1837; and Alexander D Bache's _Report on Education in Europe_ (Rs 344, 345), in 1838, with their strong co system, awakened new interest in the United States, in the islature of Massachusetts duplicated a gift of 10,000, and placed the money in the hands of the newly created State Board of Education (p
689) to be used ”in qualifying teachers for the common schools of Massachusetts” (R 350 a) After careful consideration it was decided to create special state institutions, after the Ger, and the French tereneral in the United States
[Illustration: TEACHER-TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES BY 1860
A few private training-schools also existed, though less than half a dozen in all]
On July 3, 1839, the first state normal school in the United States opened in the town hall at Lexington, Massachusetts, with one teacher and three students Later that same year a second state normal school was opened at Barre, and early the next year a third at Bridgewater, both in Massachusetts For these the State Board of Education adopted a statement as to entrance requirements and a course of instruction (R 350 b) which shoell the acade institutions
Their success was largely due to the enthusiastic support given the new idea by Horace Mann In an address at the dedication of the first building erected in America for normal-school purposes, in 1846, he expressed his deep belief as to the fundamental importance of such institutions (R 350 c) By 1860 eleven state norht of the States of the A similar services Closely related was the Teachers' Institute, first definitely organized by Henry Barnard in Connecticut, in 1839, to offer four- to six-weeks suanized in fifteen of the American States by 1860 Since 1870 the establishment of state normal schools has been rapid in the United States, two hundred having been established by 1910, and h, is as yet far fro a trained body of teachers for its eleh schools, it is only since about 1890 that the professional training of teachers for such service has really been begun
4 _England_ In England the beginnings of teacher-training came with the introduction of monitorial instruction, both the Bell and the Lancaster Societies (p 625) finding it necessary to train pupils for positions as nate certain schools asschools
In 1833, it will be rerant of money in aid of education Up to 1840 this was distributed through the two National Societies, and in 1839 a portion of this aid was definitely set aside to enable these Societies to establish , the ious Societies were developed In thesetrained in religious instruction and in the art of teaching In 1836, with the founding of the ”Ho College was founded by it
In a further effort to secure trained teachers the government, in 1846, adopted a plan then in use in Holland, and instituted what became known as the ”pupil-teacher systesystelish method, used somewhat for the same purpose a century earlier (R
243), was adapted topupils were apprenticed to a head teacher for five years (usually froive them instruction in both secondary-school subjects and in the art of teaching in return for their help in the schoolroo in 1846, there were, by 1848, 200 pupil teachers; by 1861, 13,871; and by 1870, 14,612 This systeland before the days of national education In 1874 the pupil- teacher-center syste as a pupil-teacher was raised from thirteen to sixteen, and the years of apprenticeshi+p reduced from five to two In most cases now the acadehteen, and is followed by one year of practice teaching in an elementary school, under supervision After that the teacher -College [7] So far the training of teachers has not land and Wales as has been the case in the German States, France, the United States, or Scotland, but iress may be expected in the near future as an outco as a result of the World War
SPREAD OF THE NORMAL-SCHOOL IDEA The movement for the creation of normal schools to train teachers for the elementary schools has in time spread to many nations As nation after nation has awakened to the desirability of establishi+ng a system of modern-type state schools, a nor the first of the institutions created