Part 74 (1/2)

The above represent but a few of the reat scientific advances of the nineteenth century What the thinkers of the eighteenth century had sowed broadcast through a general interest in science, their successors in the nineteenth reaped as an abundant harvest

The three great her y, and the principle of orderly evolution of life according to law--so long unknown to man, had at last been discovered, and, with these in their possession, -hidden secrets of cause and growth and form and function, both in the heavens and on the earth, and have revealed to a wondering world the prodigious and eternal forces of an orderly universe

The fruitfulness of the Baconian method (p 390) in the hands of his successors has far surpassed his uine expectations

THE APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE AND THE RESULT All this work, as has been frequently pointed out (R 338), had of necessity to precede the applications of science to the arts and to the advancement of the coht the attention of younger scholars; special schools for their study began to be established by the middle of the nineteenth century; [17] enthusiastic students of science began forcefully to challenge the centuries-long suprean to be provided; the printing-press disseminated the new ideas; and thousands of applications of science to trade and industry and huan to attract public attention and create a new de the past century the applications of this new learning to matters that intimately touch the life ofin their effects that they have produced a revolution in life conditions unlike anything the world ever experienced before In all the days from the ties in living effected were less, both in scope and importance, than have taken place in the century since Napoleon was sent to Saint Helena

THIS TRANSFORMATION WE CALL THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION This, as we pointed out earlier (p 492), began in England in the late eighteenth century

France did not experience its beginnings until after the Napoleonic Wars, though after about 1820 the transfor In the United States it began about 1810-15, and between 1820 and 1860 the industrial methods of the people of the northeastern quarter of the United States were revolutionized Between 1860 and 1900 they were revolutionized again In the Gerh it did not reach its great development until after the establishment of the Empire, in 1871 Since the middle of the nineteenth century, with the develop of railroads, and the extension of steamshi+p lines, even the most remote countries have been affected by the new forces Nations long primitive and secluded have been modernized and industrialized; century-old trades and skills have been destroyed by e industries have been replaced by the factory syste and trade have everywhere experienced a rapid developone days have been replaced by the discoveries of science and the products of invention Alo, and only in remote places do people live as they used to live The nature and extent of the change which has been wrought, and some estimate as to its effect upon educational procedure,conditions before and after this industrial transformation

[Illustration: FIG 218 MAN POWER BEFORE THE DAYS OF STEAM Foot power a century ago (Froraver)]

LIVING CONDITIONS A CENTURY AGO A century ago people everywhere lived co to be put to use (p 493), had not as yet been extensively applied andhad not as yet been harnessed, and the now oland had e proportions, and even there the methods were somewhat primitive Thousands of processes whichperform simply and effectively by the use of steao were done slowly and painfully by human labor The chief sources of poere then man and horse power The home was a center in whichwinter evenings the old crafts and skills were turned to coely hborhood

Travel was slow and expensive and soo fiftypacket on the water, was extraordinarily rapid ”One could not travel faster by sea or by land,” as Huxley remarked, ”than at any previous tie froht have done” The steah railway lines not for a quarter- century longer It took four days by coach fro vessel froland to India People moved about but little A journey of fiftynot experienced in a lifetin land made a man a marked individual

Benjamin Franklin tells us that he was frequently pointed out on the streets of Philadelphia, then the largest city in the United States, as a e Ticknor has left us an interesting record (R 339) of his difficulties, in finding anything in print in the libraries of the time, about 1815, or any one who could tell him about the work of the Ger Mada [18]

Everywhere it was a tister had to becoe The work of life, in town or on the farm, required hard and continual labor from all Farm machinery had not been perfected, and hand labor perfor and harvesting With the introduction of the factory system, men, women, and children were used to operateapprenticed to theten to twelve hours a day This soon worked the life out of hus, and in consequence sickness, wretchedness, juvenile delinquency, ignorance, drunkenness, pauperisrew and the factory system drew thousands from the farms to the towns When Queen Victoria caland was a pauper, and the lot of the poor retched in the extreme In cities they lived in cellars and basements and hovels There was practically no sanitation or drainage Streets and alleys were filthy Graveyards were commonly located in the heart of a town A pure water-supply through water-mains was unknown Pumps and water-carriers supplied nearly all the needs There was in consequence much sickness, and such diseases as typhoid and malaria ran rampant

[Illustration: FIG 219 THREshi+NG WHEAT A CENTURY AGO (After a woodcut by Jacque, in _L'Illustration_)]

CHANGE IN LIVING CONDITIONS TO-DAY In a century all has been changed

Steam and electricity and sanitary science have transforraph, cable, and printing-press have made the world one The output of the factory syste and labor conditions, even to the reislation have changed the primitive conditions of the home and made of it a clean and comfortable modern abode; men and women have been freed froery and toil, and the human effort and time saved may now be devoted to other types of work or to enjoy Thousands who once were needed for menial toil on farm or in shop and ho neants and new pleasures that mankind has coies to forms of service that advance the welfare of mankind or minister to the needs of the human spirit

[Illustration: FIG 220 A CITY WATER-SUPPLY ABOUT 1830 (After a lithograph by Bellange)]

Labor-saving devices and the applications of scientific work have touched all phases of life and labor of o everywhere The Arain-fields of Russia and the Argentine; one etables alraphs add to the comfort and pleasure of the African native and the dweller on the Yukon; ”milady” in Siam uses cosmetics manufactured for the devotees of fashi+on in Paris; the Sultan of Sulu wears an elegant American wrist-watch; the Dahomeny tribesman has a safety razor, and a mirror of French plate; the Persian dandy wears shoes and haberdashery made in the United States; old Chinaht of an Edison Mazda; the steaasoline power boat chugs its course up the Nile the Pharaohs sailed; and ical methods and instruapore, Cairo and Cape Town A rupee spent for thread at Calcutta starts the spindles going in Manchester; a new calico dress for a Mandalay belle helps the cotton-printset for a Fiji Islander means more labor for some cutlery works in Sheffield; a half- dollar for a new undershi+rt in Panaland; a new blanket called for against the winter's cold of Siberia moves the looms of some Rhode Island town; a dime spent for a box of matches in Alaska means added labor and profit for a uay spells increased output for a factory at Milan or Turin; and the Christive work to the toy factories of Nurereat trade routes of theboth the people and their products The holds of the shi+ps are filled with coal and grain and manufactured implements and coe space is croithforth to see the world The Hindoo walks the streets of Cape Town, London, Sydney, New York, San Francisco, and Valparaiso; the Russian Jew is found in all the Old and New World cities; the Englishman and the A the Pacific with their laboring classes; toiling Italians and Greeks are found all over the world; peasants froe crops of California; the moujic from the Russian Caucasus tills the wheat-fields of the Dakotas; while the Irish, Scandinavians, and Teutons for, and commercial classes in many far-distant lands In the recent World War Serbs froht side by side with Serbs frorade and Nisch; Greeks from New York and San Francisco helped their brothers froars back up the Vardar Valley; Italians from New Orleans and Rio de Janeiro helped their kinsmen from the valley of the Po hold back the Hun fro-long and the Yang-tse-Kiang backed up the Allied aralese natives helped the French hold back the Teutonic hordes from the ravishment of Paris So completely has the old isolation been broken down!

So completely is the world in flux! So small has the world become!

[Illustration: FIG 221 THE GREAT TRADE ROUTES OF THE MODERN WORLD Broken lines, on land, indicate gaps soon to be closed Coes 161 and 258, and note the progress in discovery and interco over these routes, bearing both freight and peoples]

It was almost a century from the time instruction in Greek was revived in Florence (1396) until Linacre first lectured on Greek at Oxford (c 1492); six months after the X-ray was perfected in Germany it was in use in the hospitals of San Francisco In the Middle Ages thousands ypt, a faht have been destroyed by an earthquake and ed for years in the Orient without a citizen of western Europe knowing of it all his life Today any iraph or the cable would be reported in to's paper, and carefully described and illustrated in the er a citizen of a town or a state, but of a nation and of the world How intelligently he can use this larger citizenshi+p depends today largely upon the character and the extent of the education he has received

[Illustration: FIG 222 AN EXAMPLE OF THE shi+FTING OF OCCUPATIONS

Sawing boards by hand, before the introduction of steam power]

EFFECT OF THESE CHANGES ON THE LABORING-CLassES At first the effect of the introduction of factory- devices was to upset the old established institutions Trades practiced by the guilds since the Middle Ages were destroyed, because factories could turn out goods faster and cheaper than guild workan to break down Everywhere people were thrown out of e of occupations took place There was an to unite, where allowed to do so, [20] with a view to i their economic and political condition by concerted action The political revolutions of 1848 throughout Europe were in part a anize was everywhere de the planks in their platform were equality of all before the law; the li conditions and wages; the provision of schools for their children at public expense; and the extension of the right of suffrage

Despite certain unfortunate results following the change fro conditions, the century of transition has seen the laboring ains unknown before in history, and the peasant has seen the abolition of serfdoained trereatly ated To-day there is a standard of comfort and sanitation, even for those in the humblest circumstances, beyond all previous conceptions The poorest work undreamed of in the days of tallow candles; warrate; food of a variety and quality his ancestors never knew; kitchen conveniences and an ease in kitchen holly unknown until recently; and sanitary conveniences and conditions beyond the reach of the wealthiest half a century ago The caste system in industry has been broken down, and men and their children may now choose their occupations freely, [22] and reatly increased, both actually and relatively to the greatly i The work of women and children is easier, and all work for shorter hours Child labor is fast being eliressive nations In consequence of all these changes for the better, people to-day have a leisure for reading and thinking and personal enjoyment entirely unknown before the overnments everywhere have found it both desirable and necessary to provide ratification of the new desires Along with these changes has gone the develop ideas --the modern newspaper--”the most inveterate enemy of absolutism and reaction” Despite censorshi+ps, suppressions, and confiscations, the press has by now established its freedoraph, and the cable have become ”indispensable adjuncts to the development of that pohich every absolutist has come to dread, and hich every prime minister must daily reckon”

III EFFECT OF THESE CHANGES ON EDUCATION

GENERAL RESULT OF THESE CHANGES The general result of the vast and far- reaching changes which we have just described is that the intellectual and political horizon of the working classes has been tremendously broadened; the home has been completely altered; children now have much leisure and do little labor; and the co into his own Still more, the coovernment in the future To this end he and his children must be educated, his wife and children cared for, his hos which satisfy his needs and advance his welfare The days of the rule of a sovernely passed, and the political equality which the Athenian Greeks first in the western world gave to the ”citizens” of little Athens, the Industrial Revolution has forced ive to all their people In consequence, real deovernment, education, justice, and social welfare is now in process of being attained generally, for the first time in the history of the world

The effect of all these changes in the e on the national life The political and industrial revolutions which have e have been far-reaching in their consequences The old ho, or have passed, never to return Peoples in all advanced nations are rapidly swinging into the stream of a new and vastly s them into contact and competition with the best brains of allspecialization of hu place on all sides, and with new and ever more difficult social, political, educational, industrial, co theer and smaller than it used to be, and even its reree that a century ago would not have been deemed possible, with the future welfare of the nations which so long bore the brunt of the struggle for the preservation and advancement of civilization