Part 61 (1/2)

REVOLUTIONARY IDEALS AT LAST REALIZED With the creation of the Third Republic, in 1870, a change from the old conditions and old attitudes took place Up to about 1879 the new government was in control of those ere at heart sympathetic with the old conditions, but were forced to accept the new; from 1879 to 1890 was a transition period; and since 1890 the Republic has grown steadily in strength and regained its position areat powers of the world The first few years of the new Republic were devoted to paying the Prussian inde the soil of France of Gerreat national interest a leaders of France [12] France saw, so a strong state systeher schools to train the youth of the land in the principles of the Republic, strengthen the national spirit, advance the welfare of the State, and protect it froers both within and without

PROGRESS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN FRANCE, DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, AS SHOWN BY THE REDUCTION IN THE PERCENTAGE OF ILLITERACY AMONG ARMY CONSCRIPTS, AND AMONG PERSONS SIGNING THE MARRIAGE RECORDS

Years Are records conscripts Men Women 1790 530 730 1827 580 1833 478 1840 428 1845 378 1850 357 1855 337 320 470 1860 300 304 448 1865 244 275 410 1870 197 268 394 1875 160 200 310 1880 147 161 245 1885 115 130 202 1890 78 87 128 1896 51 58 78 1901 44 44 63

Millions were put into the building of schoolhouses (1878-88); new normal schools were established; a norhty-seven departments of France; the acadeanized to eliious instruction was replaced by moral and civic instruction (R 290); and clerical ”Letters of Obedience” were no longer accepted, and all teachers were required to be certificated by the State The Law of 1881, eliion from the ele for the gradual replaceregations of France were suppressed All elementary education now became public, free, compulsory, and secular, [13] and teachers were required to be neutral in religious matters [14]

Since 1871, also, technical and scientific education has been emphasized; the primary and superior-primary schools have been made free (1881) and coenerally; the state aid for schools has been very greatly increased; _lycees_ and colleges for women have been created (1880); the _lycees_ anization and reestablishment of a series of fifteen state universities of a anization and expansion of education in France since 1875 is a wonderful exa entirely different lines from those followed, since the same date, in German lands

After the lapse of nearly a centurysee the French Revolutionary ideas of gratuity, obligation, and secularization finally put into effect, and the state system of public instruction outlined by Condorcet (p 514), in 1792, at last an accomplished fact

II NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ITALY

IMPORTANCE OF THE WORK OF NAPOLEON So e of blood that took place in Paris in the days of the Commune and the time of the National Conventions, and of the military victories and autocratic rule of Napoleon Bonaparte, that it is difficult to appraise the iress of civilization and of the organization of modern political institutions, at its true worth The faults of both are pro, but it nevertheless was thewith France a good portion of western Europe, to rid itself of the worst survivals of the Middle Ages, while to Napoleon much of western Europe is indebted for the foundation of its civil institutions, unified legal procedure, beginnings of state educational organization, andon this subject, Matthew Arnold [16] well said:

With all his faults, his [Napoleon's] reason was so clear and strong that he saw, in its general outlines at least, the just and rational type of civil organization which modern society needs, and wherever his armies went he instituted it

[Illustration: FIG 178 EUROPE IN 1810 Showing the control of France when Napoleon was at the height of his power]

That the French Revolution's merit and service was a real one is shown by all the world, as it ies That Napoleon's overnot rid, when they could, of his work, and by the progress of iovernot rid of, always bringing it back Where governood work, this work turns out to have the future on its side, and to be more likely to assimilate the institutions round it to its pattern than to be itself assimilated by them

In the Italian States, the Netherlands, some of the French cantons of Switzerland, the Rhine countries, and the Danish peninsula, in particular, the rule of Napoleon, imposed by his armies, carried out by rulers of his selection, and anization, civil order, unified government, and taste of educational opportunities of a new type which his rule brought became attractive to the people, in time proved deeply influential in their political development [17] All these nations still show traces of the French influence in their state educational organization We shall take the Italian States as a type, and examine briefly the influence on the developanization there which resulted fro rule of ”The Great Emperor”

DECLINE IN IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION IN ITALY In a preceding chapter (p

503), we mentioned that the rule of Napoleon in northern Italy awakened the national spirit froy, and caused Italian liberals to look forward, for the first ti, to the tiht be united into one Italian nation, with Rome as its capital This beca 179), though not fully completed until the World War of 1914-18 Italy stands to-day a great united nation, with a large future ahead of it, but as such it is entirely a nineteenth- century creation Fro the Renaissance, to the raphical expression” and split up into a number of little independent States; up to the time of Napoleon it was a part of the Gerreat patriotic effort of the period of the Revival of Learning (p 264) in Italy, and the rather feeble and unsuccessful atteion which followed, the intellectual development of Italy was checked and turned aside for centuries by the triuressive and anti-intellectual attitude on the part of the dominant Church The persecution of Galileo (p 388) was but a phase of the reaction in religion which had by that tiious orders, such as the Jesuits and the Barnabites, and instruction was turned aside fro to the support of a religion and the stah a number of educational foundations were un after the days when her universities were crowded and Florence and Venice vied with one another for the intellectual supreone, and both education and govern order Scholars ceased to frequent the schools of Italy; the universities changed fro institutions; [18] the intellectual capitals came to be found north of the Alps; and the history of educational progress ceased to be traced in this ancient land In the early part of the eighteenth century the schools there reached perhaps their lowest intellectual level

THE BEGINNINGS OF REFORM IN SAVOY The first and ale this condition, before Napoleon's arh the valley of the Po, was made in the seventeenth century by two Dukes of Savoy By decrees of 1729 and 1772 they took the control of the secondary (Latin) schools in their little duchy froious orders, and established a Council of Public Instruction to reform the university examinations, see that teachers were prepared for the Latin schools, and take over in the name of the authorities of the duchy the control of education Though inspired by a political interest, the two dukes brought into their little kingdom the much-needed ideas of honest work, effective administration, and public spirit, and laid the foundations for the control of education by the public authorities later on The only other attempt to improve conditions came in Lombardy, in 1774, which then was a part of the Austrian dominions and felt the short-lived reforms of Maria Theresa (p 562; R 276) Elsewhere in Italy conditions reed until the time of Napoleon

NAPOLEON REVIVES THE NATIONAL SPIRIT In 1796 Napoleon's armies invaded Sardinia, Lombardy, and the valley of the Po, and he soon extended his control to almost all the Italian peninsula For nearly two decades thereafter this collection of little States felt the unifying, regenerating influence of the organizing French Monasteries and convents and religious schools were transfore was put down, and efficient and honest government was established The ideas of the French Law of 1802 as to education were applied Every toas ordered to establish a school for boys, to teach the reading and writing of Italian and the elements of French and Latin; the secondary schools were anized Some of the universities were reduced to _licei_ (_lycees_; secondary schools), while others were strengthened and their revenues turned to better purposes The universities at Naples and Turin in particular were transfor institutions, with a decided emphasis on scientific studies A normal school was founded at Pisa, on the model of the one at Paris New standards in education were set up, the study of the sciences was introduced into the secondary schools, and the study of enerated

With the fall of Napoleon his as largely undone The firiven Italy--soes--came to an end The little States were ”handed back to the reactionary dynasts whose rule was neither benevolent nor intelligent, while the ever-ready Austrian army crushed out any localeducation were repealed, and the schools the French had established were closed as revolutionary and dangerous The normal school at Pisa ceased to exist; the university at Naples was dismantled; the one at Turin was closed; and the Jesuits were allowed to return and reorganize instruction The result was that a co conditions made Italians conscious of their racial and historical unity, and this finally expressed itself in the revolutions of 1848 These failed at the time, and the heel of the Austrian oppressor came down harder than before Liberty of the press practically ceased The national leaders went into exile for safety The prisons were filled with political offenders The schools were closed or ceased to influence The Pope, fearing the end of his earthly kingshi+p approaching, united firmly with the Austrians to resist liberal htened King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel (1849-78) and his Prime Minister, Count of Cavour, the Austrians were driven out (1859-66) and all Italy was united (1870) under the rule of one king interested in pro the welfare of his people

[Illustration: FIG 179 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY, SINCE 1848]

SARDINIA LEADS TO NATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL The movement to free Italy was essentially a liberal movement Many hoped to create a republic, but chose a liberal constitutional monarchy under Victor Emmanuel as the most feasible plan Cavour understood the ian to build up schools [19] and put them under state control In 1844, a normal school was opened in Turin In 1847, a Minister of Public Instruction was appointed and a Council of Public Instruction created, after the plan of France, In 1848, a General School Laas enacted, and the organization and iun with a will In 1850, a commission was sent to study the school systems of Europe, and in particular those of France and of the German States A Supreme Council of Public Instruction was now for priher-primary schools, classical and technical secondary schools, colleges, and the reorganization of the universities was begun In 1859, when the growth of Italian unity was rapidly extending the rule of Victor Eanization of public instruction, was enacted A Minister of Public Instruction appointed by the King, a Supreme Council of Public Instruction, and a Departovernment, were all provided for, after the French plan

[Illustration: FIG 180 COUNT OF CAVOUR (1810-61)]

This Law of 1859 was later extended to cover all Italy, and has forislation It clearly established a state systeious schools were allowed to remain

It also established control after the French plan, with a high degree of centralization and uniformity The schools established, too, were h much less extensive in scope The primary and superior prih since extended in all the larger communities to a six-year combined course The two-class school system was established, as in France and German lands

The secondary-school systeinnasio_, established in many places (218 in Italy by 1865; 458 by 1916) with a three-year _liceo_ following, but found in a smaller number of places

Parallel with this a seven-year non-classical scientific and technical secondary school was also created, and these institutions have made marked headway (461 by 1916) in central and northern Italy Pupils may pass to either of these on the coe of ten Above the secondary schools are numerous universities The nor in the primary schools, while the university system followed the completion of the _liceo_ course [Illustration: FIG 181 OUTLINE OF THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE ITALIAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM]

The influence of French ideas in Italian educational organization is clearly evident Before the French aranization to Italy al the first six decades of the nineteenth century, the transition from the church-school idea to the conception of education as an i systeanization and form