Part 42 (1/2)

Here and there in Teutonic lands, however, the new studies found an occasional patron In 1619 schools were organized for the little Duchy of Weiiven a place in them The schoolmaster, Andreas Reyher, who in 1642 drew up the _Schule Methodus_ ”the actual title of that book was 'Schul, was familiar with the work of both Ratke and Comenius, and made provision for instruction in ”the natural and useful sciences” (R 163) for Duke Ernest's children Here and there a few other attempts to provide schools and add instruction in the new _Realien_ were e, but their as influential, and as a result vernacular schools and science instruction finally beca peoples before they did in any other land

THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS The influence of Milton's _Tractate_ on the non- conforland has been traced, and the transfer of the idea of instruction in the new mathematical, scientific, literary, historical, and political subjects to the new American Academies has been mentioned That these new studies also entered into the education of a gentleland and France, under the private-tutor and the courtly- academy systee part of the instruction organized for the _Ritterakademieen_ of the numerous court cities in Gerland and France such private instruction exerted but little influence on the existing Latin grammar schools, and in consequence the schools of both countries reed in direction and purpose until the second half of the nineteenth century In German lands the _Ritterakademieen_ idea experienced a further develope importance for the future of German education

FRANCKE'S ”INStitUTIONS” With the introduction of French ideas and training into the Gerion developed in the court circles Under the influence of a pious Lutheran clergyion as an affair of the heart rather than the head; and especially as a result of the work of his spiritual successor, Augustus Her the closing years of the seventeenth century, which becausted with the lifeless and insincere religion of the tiion of both head and heart In 1695, moved by pity for the poor, Francke established at Halle the first of his famous ”Institutions,”--a school for poor children A pay school for the well-to-do was soon added, and soon another school for the children of nobility An orphan school also was in time provided The school for the poor developed into a vernacular or _Burgher_ (_volks_; peoples) school; the school for the pay pupils into a Latin School, or _Gyher scientific school, or _Padagogiuical opposition, but the ”Institutions”

prospered, and at the time of his death contained over 2200 pupils, and over 300 teachers, workers, and attendants

[Illustration: FIG 128 AUGUSTUS HERMANN FRANCKE (1663-1727)]

The interesting thing about Francke's as the courses of instruction he provided for his schools [11] In the Burgher School he gave the children instruction in history, geography, and ani, ion of the usual German vernacular school Into the _Gyraphy, music, science, and mathematics, in addition to the usual Latin, Greek, and Hebrew He also changed the purpose of the language instruction Greek was studied to be able to read the New Testainal, and Hebrew better to understand the Old The _Padagogiuarden, a cabinet of natural history, physical apparatus, a laboratory for the study of chelass-cutting Independent of the work of Corowth of the newto influence educational thought, we have here the most important attempt at the introduction into the school of sense realism, or _Realien_, as the Germans say, that the modern world had so far witnessed In 1697 Francke added a _Seminarium Praeceptorium_, to train teachers in his new ideas This was the first teachers' training- school in German lands, and the teachers he trained served to scatter his educational ideas over the German States [12]

THE FIRST REALSCHULE associated with Francke as a teacher was one Christopher Semler (1669-1740), who became deeply interested in the new studies of the secondary school In 1706 Se for the teaching of the practical studies

This was referred to the Berlin Society of Sciences, which approved the plan, and later elected Semler to membershi+p in the Society For years Se the idea far enough to create a new type of school In 1739 Semler published a paper ”Upon the Mathericultural Real School in the City of Halle,” in which he described the instruction given there This was probably the first use of the term ”real school” (Realschule) The iion, were ”the useful and in daily life wholly indispensable sciences,” such as riculture, and economics, with much emphasis on observation by the pupils

The work at Halle soon sti Latin schools, where children, destined for business or the service of the State, were kept trying to learn Latin, ”to the neglect of more practical and more useful studies” The usefulness of the new real studies now began to be rew that those boys ere destined for trade--now a rapidly increasing nued to follow the same course as those destined to be scholars In 1720 Rector Gesner, of the gy, wrote, rather sarcastically:

The one class, ill not study, but will become trades, arithraphy, description of the world, and history The other class

In 1742 the Rector at Dresden, Schottgen, issued a ”Humble proposal for the special class in public city schools” to provide for those children ”who are to remain without (that is, cannot learn) Latin” Instead of forcing them to attempt to learn Donatus, which he said was useless for theanized to train them to become useful merchants, artists, and mechanics In 1751 Rector Henzky, of Prenzlau, issued a treatise to show ”That Real schools can and must become common” In 1756 Gesner, professor at the new University of Gottingen, in a paed that there were three classes of youths for whom schools should be provided, one of which needed the _Realschule_

In 1747 a clergyman by the name of Julius Hecker (1707-1768), who had been a pupil in, and later had taught in Francke's ”'Institutions,” went to Berlin and opened there the first distinct German _Realschule_ In this school Hecker provided instruction in religion, ethics, Gerraphy, e of nature and of the huriculture, bookkeeping,The school prospered from the first, and in tirowing de number of youths destined for the trades or a mercantile career, the _realschule_ idea was copied in a number of the important cities of Germany Thus early--a century in advance of other nations, and a century and a quarter ahead of the United States--did Prussia lay the foundations of that scientific and technical education which, later on, did somodern industrial Germany

THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE NEW SCIENTIFIC LEARNING Though the theological persecution of scientific workers largely died out after about the middle of the seventeenth century, and was never much of a factor in lands which had embraced some form of Protestantism, the new sciences nevertheless made but little headway in the universities until after the beginning of the eighteenth century Up to the close of the seventeenth century the universities in all lands continued to be doical faculties, and instruction still reland represents perhaps the most notable exception to this statereater tolerance by the universities there than in other lands In both Catholic and Protestant lands the need was felt for orthodox training, through fear of further heresy, andwhich were stifling to free thinking and investigation Each little Kingdom or State now took over the supervision of some old university within its borders, or established a new one, that it ht more completely control orthodoxy and prepare its own civil servants Of the seventeenth century, Paulsen [13] well says:

It was essentially the period of the territorial-confessional university, and is characterized by a preponderance of theological- confessional interest Many new foundations, both Catholic and Protestant, now appeared The chief i to these numerous foundations was the accentuation of the principle of territorial sovereignty, from the ecclesiastical as well as the political point of view The consequence was that the universities began to be _instruovernment as professional schools for its ecclesiastical and secular officials Each individual government endeavored to secure its own university in order--(1) to make sure of wholesome instruction, which meant, of course, instruction in harmony with the confessional standards of its established church; (2) to retain training of its secular officials in its own hands; and finally (3) render attendance at foreign universities unnecessary on the part of its subjects, and thus keep the e amounts of money were not needed to establish a new university A few thousand guilders or thalers sufficed for the salaries of ten or fifteen professors, a couple of preachers and physicians would undertake the theological and medical lectures, and sos

After the Reformation the law faculty increased to the place of first importance in Protestant lands, because the Reforher court officials to replace the rule of the clergy The medical faculty continued to be, as in the mediaeval universities, the smallest of all the faculties and amounted to little before the nineteenth century [14] The arts faculty, or philosophical as it came to be termed in German lands, offered lectures in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and a general course in philosophy, but the Aristotelian texts and to some extent mediaeval inning of the eighteenth century

Here and there some professor ”read” on mathematics, and in Protestant lands on the new astronoan as the study of herbs in thethe sixteenth and seventeenth centuries few professors or students were interested in the scientific subjects By 1675 Bacon's _Novue, and by 1700 the Newtonian physics had begun to displace Aristotle at Oxford By 1740 it ell established there At first instruction in the new subjects was offered as an extra and for a fee byprofessional rank (R 224), and later the instruction was given full recognition by the university By 1700 Cae had becorowth in popularity of the Newtonian philosophy, ic in the e has ever since re of the nineteenth century, for scientific studies as well Between 1680 and 1700 the University of Paris was reformed, and the mathean to be taught there The universities of the Netherlands began to teach the new mathematical and scientific studies even earlier

Aside from the above described _Realschule_ developely passed over German lands, and in consequence the Gerhteenth century During the seventeenth century they sank to their lowest intellectual level In 1694, largely in protest against the narrowness of the old universities, the new University of Halle was founded It received into its faculty certain forward-looking men who had been driven froenerally considered as the first modern university The new scientific and mathematical subjects and a reformed philosophy were introduced; the instruction in Greek and Latin was reformed; German was made the azine in Geren became a second center of modern influence, and froradually spread to all the Protestant universities of Ger universities of the world

THE TRANSITION NOW PRACTICALLY COMPLETE Froe (1333), in the form of two previously unknown orations of Cicero (p 244), to the publication of the _Principia_ (p

388) of Newton (1687), is a period of approxi these three and a half centuries a complete transformation of world-life had been effected, and the iven place to thethese three and a half centuries revolutionary forces had been at work in the world of ideas, and the transition from mediaeval to modern attitudes had been accomplished Fro this period the ht and edited and the classical literature of Rome restored Greek also was restored to the western world, and a reforiven the place of first importance in the new hu took place in 1423; 1456 witnessed the appearance of the first printed book, and the perfection of the new means for the multiplication of books and the disseraphical discovery had been inaugurated; a sea-route to India was found in 1487; and a new continent in 1492 In 1519-22 Magellan's shi+ps rounded the world

In 1517 Luther issued the challenge, the shock of which was felt in every corner of Christian Europe, and within a half-century inal Ro had been extended to the probleanization of the universe, and in 1543 Copernicus issued the book that clearlyand inquiry

Bacon had done his organizing work by 1620, and Newton's _Principia_ (1687) finally established ht and work Co work done, and his textbooks, with their many new educational ideas, in use all over Europe The overnment, but the world as a whole had leftthe future of anization of thisso we shall try to present a cross-section, as it were, of the development in educational theory and practice which had been attained by about the hteenth century

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1 Explain why the scholars of the ti a new race of Roman youths for a revived Latin scholarly world

2 Show that a reaction against humanism was certain to arise, and why

3 How do you explain the very sland by the non-confor English non-state systene