Part 30 (1/2)

ULTIMATE CONSEQUENCES OF THE BREAK WITH AUTHORITY That the Protestant Revolts in the different lands produced large ies in the character of the education provided in the revolting States is no longer accepted as being the case In every phase of educational history growth has proceeded by evolution rather than by revolution, and this applies to the Protestant Revolts as well as to other revolutions

Many changes naturally resulted at once, soood and some of which were not, while others which were enthusiastically attereat advances for the tiurated was lost in the ious strife which followed, and the additional century and ious forious conforious strife The educational significance of the refor nature of its larger results and ultimate consequences rather than in its immediate accomplishments, and because of this the ies effected have been overestimated by Protestants and underesti Luther's break with authority, and for that li, and Calvin as well, was that of substituting the authority of the Bible in religiousindividual judgment in the interpretation of the Scriptures and in for decisions as to Christian duty for the collective judg individual responsibility for salvation, in Luther's conception of justification through personal faith and prayer, for the collective responsibility for salvation of the Church [1] Whether one believes that the Protestant position was sound or not depends al and beliefs, and need not concern us here, as it makes no difference with the course of history We can believe either way, and the course that history took remains the same The educational consequences of the position taken by the Protestants, though, are iment and collective responsibility for salvation--that is, the judgment of the Church rather than that of individuals--it was not important that more than a few be educated Under the new theory of individual judgated by the Protestants it became very important, in theory at least, that every one should be able to read the word of God, participate intelligently in the church services, and shape his life as he understood was in accordance with the commandments of the Heavenly Father

This undoubtedly called for the education of all Still more, from individual participation in the services of the Church, with freedoious matters, to individual participation in and responsibility for the conduct of governovernments and the provision of universal education were the natural and ultih not i the interpretation of the Scriptures and the place and authority of the Church This was soon seen and acted upon The great struggle of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in consequence, becale of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries has been for political freedohts; to supply universal education has been left to the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries

SCHOOLS AND LEARNING BEFORE THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY After the rise of the universities, as we have seen, many Latin secondary schools were founded in western Europe, and a er church schools took place Rashdall (R 154) thinks that by 1400 the opportunity to attend a Latin grammar school was rather common, an opinion in which Leach and Nohle concur After the hu had spread to northern lands these opportunities were increased and iland, for exarammar schools are known to have been in existence by 1500 In Germany, as we have seen (chapter xi), many such schools were founded before the time of Luther These offered a fore of the educated classes of the tio to the universities to prepare for service in either Church or State, and for teaching The Church had also for long maintained or exercised control over a nu, chantry, hospital (chapter VII)--the chief purpose of which was to prepare for certain phases of the church service, or to enter the secondary schools

These schools, too, were taught partly or wholly in Latin In consequence, while Latin schools came to be rather widely diffused, schools in the vernacular hardly existed outside of a few of the larger couild schools (p 205), established in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, were essentially Latin schools

[Illustration: PLATE 6 EDUCATIONAL LEADERS IN PROTESTANT GERMANY (Fro dated 1543, by Lucas Cranach, a German contemporary of both men, and now in the Uffizi Gallery, at Florence)

MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546) Professor of Theology at Wittenberg

PHILIPP MELANCHTHON (1497-1560) Professor of Greek at Wittenberg]

In the coh often only after quite a struggle with the local church authorities, which throughout the Middle Ages had maintained a monopoly of all instruction as a protection to orthodoxy, different types of elementary vernacular schools had been developed to -schools to train writers, [2] and reckoning-schools to train young ion were also taught in these schools

Other city schools, largely Latin in type, but containing some vernacular instruction to meet local business needs not met by the cathedral or parish schools of the city, were also developed Up to the time of the Protestant Revolts, however, there was almost no instruction in the vernacular outside of the commercial cities, nor was there any particular demand for such instruction elsewhere If one wished to be a scholar, a statesious brotherhood, he needed to study the learned language of the time,--Latin

With this he could be at home with people of his kind anywhere in western Europe The vernacular he could leave to tradesmen, craftsmen, soldiers, laborers, and the servant classes

[Illustration: FIG 92 TWO EARLY VERNACULAR SCHOOLS GERMAN (Fro, 1505) FRENCH (After a drawing by Soquand, 1528)]

These people, on the other hand, had practically no need for a written language, aside fron of the cross would do There were but few books written in the vernacular tongues, and these had to be copied by hand and, in consequence, were scarce and expensive There were no newspapers (first newspaper, Venice, 1563) orwere not known until the end of the thirteenth century, and were not coe that could not pass from mouth to mouth Such little vernacular literature as did exist was transination of thedesire for the ability to read As a result, the education of the ion, and not in books, and the need for book education was scarcely felt

A NEW DEMAND FOR VERNACULAR SCHOOLS The invention of printing and the Protestant Revolts were in a sense two revolutionary forces, which in coes The discovery of the process of ed the whole situation as to books These could now be reproduced rapidly and in large numbers, and could be sold at but a s of the Bible in the coue did far more to stimulate a desire to be able to read than did the Revival of Learning (Rs 155, 170) Then caious discussions of the Reformation period, which stirred intellectually thebefore in history had ever done In an effort to reach the people the reforinated small and cheap pamphlets, written in the vernacular, and these, sold for a penny or tere peddled in the market-places and from house to house While there had been imperfect translations of the Bible in German before Luther's, his translation (New Testainal Greek and so carefully done that it virtually fixed the character of the Gere [4] Calvin's _Institutes of Christianity_ (French edition, 1541) in a sie, [5] and Tyndale's translation of the New Testae [6] that it fixed the character of the English tongue, and was made the basis for the later Authorized translation

[Illustration: FIG 93 THE FIRST PAGE OF WYCLIFFE'S BIBLE Translated between 1382 and 1384 Facsimile of the first verses of Genesis]

The leaders of the Protestant Revolts, too, in asserting that each person should be able to read and study the Scriptures as a means to personal salvation, created an entirely new demand, in Protestant lands, for elementary schools in the vernacular Heretofore the demand had been for schools only for those who expected to become scholars or leaders in Church or State, while theNow a new class becae which they had already learned to speak Wycliffe, Huss, Zwingli, Luther, Calvin, and Knox alike insisted on the importance of the study of the Bible as a pri the Bible within reach of the people Wycliffe's followers had atte by hand (p 290) copies of his translation Zwingli had written a pa up Boys in a Christian Way_ (1524), in which he urged the i the Bible, had prepared two general Catechisms, one for adults and one for children, had written hymns [7] and issued nuious education All these were printed in the vernacular and scattered broadcast Luther thought that ”every hu, by the time he has reached his tenth year, should be familiar with the Holy Gospels, in which the very core and marrow of his life is bound” In his sered a study of the Bible and the duty of sending children to school Calvin's Catechism similarly was extensively used in Protestant lands

1 _Lutheran School Organization_

EDUCATIONAL IDEAS OF LUTHER Luther enunciated the ressive ideas on education of all the German Protestant reformers In his _Letter to the Mayors and Aldermen of all the Cities of Germany in behalf of Christian Schools_ (1524) (R 156), and in his _Ser Children to School_ (1530), we find these set forth That his ideas could be but partially carried out is not surprising There were but few aressive proposals, they were entirely too advanced for the time, there was no body of vernacular teachers [8] orwas not understood, and the religious hich followedtime to come The sad condition of the schools, which he said were ”deteriorating throughout Gered of those in authority ”not to think of the subject lightly, for the instruction of youth is a matter in which Christ and all the world are concerned” All towns had to spend es, and the like, and why not some for schools? This they now could easily afford, ”since Divine Grace has released them from the exaction and robbery of the Rolected their educational duty, yet there overnment ”Were there neither soul, heaven, nor hell,” he declared, ”it would still be necessary to have schools for the sake of affairs here below The world has need of educated overn the country properly and wo up their children, care for their domestics, and direct the affairs of their households” ”The welfare of the State depends upon the intelligence and virtue of its citizens,” he said, ”and it is therefore the duty of mayors and aldermen in all cities to see that Christian schools are founded and maintained” (R 156)

[Illustration: FIG 94 LUTHER GIVING INSTRUCTION An ideal drawing, though representative of early Protestant popular instruction]

The parents of children he held responsible for their Christian and civic education This h and low, rich and poor It was the inherent right of each child to be educated, and the State must not only see that the means are provided, but also require attendance at the schools (R 158) At the basis of all education lay Christian education The importance of the services of the teacher was beyond ordinary comprehension (R 157) Teachers should be trained for their work, and clergymen should have had experience as teachers A school system for German people should be a state system, divided into:

1 _Vernacular Priht in the vernacular, to be open to both sexes, to include reading, writing, physical training, singing, and religion, and to give practical instruction in a trade or in household duties Upon this attendance should be compulsory ”It is my opinion,” he said, ”that we should send boys to school for one or two hours a day, and have them learn a trade at home the rest of the time It is desirable that these two occupations march side by side”

2 _Latin Secondary Schools_ Upon these he placed great emphasis (R 156) as preparatory schools by y was to be perpetuated for the instruction of the people In these he would teach Latin, Greek, Hebrew, rhetoric, dialectic, history, science, y for the higher service in Church and State

[Illustration: FIG 95 JOHANNES BUGENHAGEN (1485-1558) Father of the Lutheran _Volksschule_ in northern Germany]

THE ORGANIZING WORK OF BUGENHAGEN Luther assisted in reorganizing the churches at Wittenberg (1523), Leipzig (1523), and Magdeburg (1524), in connection with all of which he provided for Lutheran-type schools [9]

Luther, though, was not essentially an organizer The organizing genius of the Reforue, Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560), Professor of Greek at the University of Wittenberg In northern Geren (1485-1558), another of Luther's colleagues at Wittenberg More than any other Gerion and education in those parts of Gered from Roman Catholicism to Geranized as Lutheran churches, and the schools connected with theanization of each of these a _ had to be written out (Rs 159, 160) In this change cathedral and other large church schools beca, chantry, and other types of parish elementary schools were transforen was sent to reorganize the churches of northern Gerood provision for Lutheran parish schools in connection with each of the churches he reorganized At Brunswick (1528), Ha (1529) (R 159), Lubeck (1530), for his native State of Po-Holstein (1537), and elsewhere in northern Germany, he drew up church and school plans (_Kirchen und Schule- Ordnungen_) which formed models (Rs 159, 160) forfor a Latin school for the city, he organized eleirls, in which instruction in reading, writing, and religion was to be given in the Gerue He has been called the father of the Gerh probablyschools In 1537 he was called to Denanize the University of Copenhagen and the Danish Church and schools as Lutheran institutions