Part 26 (1/2)

In this effort to revive the old Roreat men of wealth, and of some of the popes of the time It was the Medici family at Florence who aided the movement liberally there, rejuvenated the university of Florence along new humanistic lines, accumulated libraries there (R 130) and at Venice, and aided scholars all over Italy At Milan the Visconti family paid the expenses of a chair of Latin and Greek, established in the university there in 1440 Popes Nicholas V and Leo X were prodigal in their support of the new learning at Ro e financial and other support to the leaders of the new learning Acadee of the nobility, were founded in almost all the northern Italian cities, and those in political power did much to make their cities notable centers for classical studies

NEW SCHOOLS CREATED The ”finds” began with Petrarch's discovery of two orations of Cicero, in 1333, and by the ti to a close the materials for a new type of secondary education had been accumulated Not only was the old literature discovered and edited, but the finding of a complete copy of Quintilian's ”Institutes of Oratory” at Saint Gall (R 127), in 1416, gave a detailed explanation of the old Roman theory of education at its best A number of ”court schools” now arose in the different cities, to which children fro and es they offered over the older types of religious schools

[Illustration: FIG 77 TWO EARLY ITALIAN HUMANIST EDUCATORS

GUARINO DA VERONA (1374-1460) (Drawn fro School at Ferrara, 1429-1460)

VITTORINO DA FELTRE (1378-1446) (Drawn from a medallion in the British Museum School at Mantua, 1423-46)]

Two of the most famous teachers in these court schools were Vittorino da Feltre, who conducted a famous school at Mantua from 1423 to 1446, and Guarino da Verona, who conducted another almost equally fa boys at nine or ten and retaining them until twenty or twenty-one, their schools were land and A to the physical activities,processes; and providing the best instruction the world had up to that tie Many of the uished leaders in Church and State and some of the best scholars of the time were trained in them By better methods they covered, in shorter time, as much or more than was provided in the Arts course of the universities, and so became rivals of them The ultimate result was that, with the evolution of a series of secondary schools which prepared for ad” of the universities, and the introduction of printed textbooks, the Arts courses in the universities were advanced to a her plane We have here one of the first of a nuanized into teaching shape, has been passed on down to lower schools to teach, while the universities have stepped forward into new and higher fields of endeavor

THE HUMANISTIC COURSE OF STUDY The new instruction was based on the study of Greek and Latin, combined with the courtly ideal and with some of the physical activities of the old chivalric education Latin was begun with the first year in school, and the regular Roman emphasis was placed on articulation and proper accent After sos, selected froress waslanguage, Cicero and Quintilian ail, Lucan, Horace, Seneca, and Claudian a the poets, were read and studied History was introduced in these schools for the first tih the history was the history of Greece and Rome and was drawn from the authors studied Livy and Plutarch were the chief historical writers used Nothing that happened after the fall of Rome was deemed as of importance Much emphasis was placed on ain as the great guides to conduct Throughout all this the use of Latin as a living language was insisted upon; declamation became a fine art; and the ability to read, speak, and compose in Latin was the test Cicero, in particular, because of the exquisite quality of his Latin style, becareat prose model

Quintilian was the supre (R 25) Greek also was begun later, though studied rammar of Theodorus Gaza (p 248) was studied, followed by the reading of Xenophon, Isocrates, Plutarch, and soh drill in ancient history and literature was given along with careful attention to , and each pupil's health atchfully supervised--an absolutely new thought in the Christian world Such physical sports and ga, leaping, and dancing were also given special eames between different schools were held, much as in modern times

The result was an all-round physical,previously offered by the cathedral and other church schools, and which at once established a new type which idely copied

A number of these new teachers, called _humanists_, wrote treatises on the proper order of studies, the ht education of a prince, liberal education, and si the education provided in the school which his father founded at Ferrara (R 135), laid down a dictum which was accepted widely until the middle of the nineteenth century, when he wrote:

I have said that ability to write Latin verse is one of the essential marks of an educated person I wish now to indicate a second, which is of at least equal ie of Greece The time has come e must speak in no uncertain voice upon this vital requirement of scholarshi+p

HUMANISM IN FRANCE Fro with the retreating armies that had occupied Naples, Florence, and Milan (p 252), and when Francis I ca found in his before this, the new learning really found a home in France now for the first time Here, too, it became associated with court and noble, and the schools created to furnish this new instruction were provided at the instigation of soreatest humanistic scholar in France at the time, Budaeus, was made royal librarian, in 1522

His study of the old Roe, upon which he spent nine years, would pass to-day as a study representing a high grade of scholarshi+p, and was in marked contrast with the scholastic s Budaeus set forth for France the dictu, should be devoted to letters and liberal learning, and that this culture can be obtained only through Greek and Latin, and of these, unlike the Italians, he held Greek to be the more important Other scholars now helped to transfer the center for Greek scholarshi+p to Paris, where it remained for the next two centuries

[Illustration: FIG 78 GUILLAUME BUDAEUS (1467-1540)]

A royal press was set up in Paris, in 1526, to pro Libraries were built up, as in Italy Humanist scholars were e de France_ was established at Paris, by direction of the King, with chairs in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and iven almost no attention, but in France, and particularly in Germany, Hebrew became an important study The development of schools in northern France was hindered by the dissensions following the religious revolts of Luther and Calvin, but in southern France es, much like the court schools of northern Italy in type The work of the city of Bordeaux in reorganizing its town school along the new lines was typical of the work of other southern cities Good teachers, liberal instruction, and a broad- authorities [3] e de Guyenne_, notable not only for huent public education during the second half of the sixteenth century The picture of this college (school) left us by its greatest principal, Elie Vinet (R 136), gives an interesting description of its work

[Illustration: FIG 79 COLLeGE DE FRANCE Founded at Paris, in 1530, by King Francis I for instruction in the new huuage and life was closely related to that of northern Italy, and French religious thought had always been so closely in touch with that of Ro for the old Roman culture and institutions was felt by the hu existed, and in these countries any effort to discredit the rising native languages was arded as h, Latin was still the language of the Church, of the universities, of all learned writing, and the means of international intercourse, and after the new humanism had once obtained a foothold it elcoe Erasmus, the foremost scholar of his day, not only labored hard to introduce the new learning in the schools, but welcoe for scholarshi+p, as a potent weapon for destroying barriers of language, religion, law, and possibly in tiave of peace in international relationshi+ps In both Gerland, in place of the patriotic fervor of the Italians, religious zeal, as we shall see later on, was kindled by the new humanistic studies

[Illustration: FIG 80 JOHANN REUCHLIN (1455-1522) ”Father ofthe universities Vienna, Heidelberg, Erfurt, Tubingen, and Leipzig (see Figure 61) were fore

Erfurt beca the closing years of the fifteenth century, and the first Greek book printed in Ger Reuchlin (p 254) taught for a time, and both institutions early became centers for the study of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew At Leipzig the reigning duke brought various humanistic scholars to the university to lecture, after 1507, and in 1519 entirely refor the mediaeval disciplines to the new studies Four new universities-- Wittenberg (1502), Marburg (1527), Konigsberg (1544), and Jena (1558)-- were established on the new hu were centers for the new learning At Wittenberg, Martin Luther had been y, in 1508, when but twenty-five years of age, and to Wittenberg the Electoral Prince, in 1518, brought the young Melanchthon, then but twenty-one, as Professor of Greek The universities of Germany were more profoundly affected by the introduction of the new learning than were those of any other country Thecontrolled the Ger princes, and by the close of the first quarter of the sixteenth century the new humanism was everywhere triumphant in German lands

GERMAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS The enthusiase the establishment of humanistic secondary schools in the German cities The schools of ”The Brethren of the Co order founded by Gerhard Grote at Deventer, Holland, in 1384, and which had established forty-five houses by the ti came into the Netherlands from Italy, at once adopted the new studies, soon trebled the number of its houses, and for decades supplied teachers of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew to all the surrounding countries [4] Wessel, Agricola, Hegius, Reuchlin, and Sturreatest pupil Here and there in Ger the subjects of the _Triviurames, and to these scholars trained in the new learning gradually made their way, secured employment, and thus quietly introduced a purified Latin and the intellectual part of the new humanistic course of study Up to 1520 this method was followed entirely in Ger the first to provide schools of the new type In 1526 the co, in southern Germany, opened one of the first of the new city huiving the dedicatory address A number of similar schools were founded about this ti, Ha the nu, to meet the needs of the people in essentially coht have been true in idly classical training for youth and early manhood was found but poorly suited to the needs of the sons of wealthy burghers destined to a co coes, and not on elegant Latin verse and prose The coher schools, ele schools, business experience, and travel for the education of their sons, leaving the Latin schools of the humanists to those destined for the service of the Church, the law, teaching, or the higher state service

[Illustration: FIG 81 JOHANN STURM (1507-89) (After a conte by Stofflin)]

THE WORK OF JOHANN STURM The most successful classical school in all Germany, and the one which fory, under the direction (1536-82) of the famous Johann Sturm, or Sturmius, as he came to call himself This was one of the early classical schools founded by the commercial cities, but it had not been successful In 1536 the authorities invited Sturraduate of the University of Louvain, and at that time a teacher of classics and dialectic at Paris, where he had coht froanize it This he did, and during the forty-five years he was head of the school it became the most famous classical school in continental Europe His _Plan of Organization_, published in 1538; his _Letters to the Masters_ on the course of study, in 1565; and the record of an examination of each class in the school, conducted in 1578, all of which have been preserved, give us a good idea as to the nature of the organization and instruction (R 137)

Sturanization

Probably adopting the plan of the French colleges (R 136), he organized his school into ten classes, [6] one for each year the pupil was to spend in the school, and placed a teacher in charge of each The aie, and the art of speaking,” and ”every effort of teachers and pupils” should bend toward acquiring ”knowledge, and purity and elegance of diction” Of the ten years the pupil was to spend in the _gyhyears to the acquisition of an elegant style Cicero was the great il, Plautus, Terence, Martial, Sallust, Horace, and other authors were read and studied Except that the Catechism was first studied in the native Gere of the classroo, decla of plays Rhetoric, too, was un in the fifth year of school and continued throughout, all instruction in Greek being given through the medium of the Latin [7] The instruction in both Latin and Greek was much like that of the court schools of Italy, except that in Greek the New Testaa of the Italian schools, however, were oentlemanly conduct; and in educational purpose a narrow drill was substituted for the broad cultural spirit of the French and Italian schools

Sturreatest and most successful schoolanization, carefully graded instruction, good teaching, and sound scholarshi+p, his school surpassed all others

Sturm's aim was to train pious, learned, and eloquent ion and the new learning as means, and in this he was very successful In a short tiymnasium_ had six hundred pupils, and in 1578 there were ”thousands of pupils, representing eight nations,” in attendance Sturhout northern Europe, and scholars and princes passing through Strassburg stopped to visit his school and secure his advice He corresponded with scholars in many lands, and the influence of his institution was enormous He was the author of many school textbooks, and of half a dozen works on the theory and practice of education He fixed both the type and the naymnasium_--of the German classical secondary school, which to-day is not very ave it Sturm's work deeply influenced many later foundations in Germany, and also helped to mould the educational system devised later on by the Jesuits

[Illustration: FIG 82 DESIDERIUS ERASMUS (1467-1536) A conteer, in the Louvre, Paris]

HUMANISM IN ENGLAND Grocyn, Linacre, and Colet had introduced the new learning at Oxford, as we have already seen (p 253), in the closing years of the fifteenth century (R 133), but had made but little iht Greek at Cae (1510- 14), and who labored hard to substitute true classical culture for the poor Latin and the empty scholasticism of his time He wrote textbooks [8]