Part 21 (1/2)
Accordingly it came about in time that, after a number of years of study in the Arts under some master, a student was permitted to present himself for a test as to his ability to define words, deter of phrases, and read the ordinary Latin texts in Graic (the _Triviuland this test cae was equivalent to advancing from apprenticeshi+p to the ranks of a journeyht now be perive so his studies He now became an assistant or companion, and by the fourteenth century was known as a _baccalaureus_, a teruilds, and which ht of establishi+ng an exaree for the coree was a later develop to teach, and eventually erected into a separate degree
When the student had finally heard a sufficient nuuild, helicense This was a public trial, and took the form of a public disputation on soainst all coous to the uild, and he submitted it to a jury of the ed satisfactory, he also became a master in his craft, was now able to define and dispute, was forht have a seal, and was variously known as master, doctor, or professor, all of which were once synony one of the professional subjects he studied still further, usually for a number of years, in one of the professional faculties, and in time he was declared to be a Doctor of Law, or Medicine, or of Theology
[Illustration: FIG 62 SEAL OF A DOCTOR, UNIVERSITY OF PARIS]
THE TEACHING FACULTIES The students for a long tiression) according to the nation from which they came, [15] and each ”nation” elected a _councilor_ to look after the interests of its members Between the different nations there were constant quarrels, insults were passed back and forth, and endered [16] On the side of thesubjects, and into what came to be known as _faculties_ [17]
Thus there caanized reat divisions of knowledge which had been evolved--Arts, Law, Medicine, and Theology Each faculty elected a _dean_, and the deans and councilors elected a _rector_, as the head or president of the university The _chancellor_, the successor of the cathedral school _scholasticus_, was usually appointed by the Pope and represented the Church, and a long struggle ensued between the rector and the chancellor to see who should be the chief authority in the university
The rector was ultiely an honorary position of no real importance
[Illustration: FIG 63 NEW COLLEGE, AT OXFORD One of the oldest of the Oxford colleges, having been founded in 1379 The picture shows the chapel, cloisters (consecrated in 1400), and a tall tower, once for a part of the Oxford city walls Note the sie to a monastery, as in Plate 1]
The Arts Faculty was the successor of the old cathedral-school instruction in the Seven Liberal Arts, and was found in practically all the universities The Law Faculty ena The Medical Faculty taught the knowledge of the medical art, as worked out at Salerno and Montpellier The Theological Faculty, the most important of the four, prepared learned men for the service of the Church, and was for some two centuries controlled by the scholastics The Arts Faculty was preparatory to the other three As Latin was the language of the classroo knowledge of Latin was necessary before co to the university to study This was obtained from a study of the first of the Seven Arts-- Grammar--in some e of Latin formed practically the sole requirement for admission to the mediaeval university, and continued to be the chief admission requirement in our universities up to the nineteenth century (R 186 a)
In Europe it is still of great importance as a preparatory subject, but in South American countries it is not required at all
Very few of the universities, in the beginning, had all four of these faculties The very nature of the evolution of the earlier ones precluded this Thus Bologna had developed into a _studiuenerale_ from its prominence in law, and was virtually constituted a university in 1158, but it did not add Medicine until 1316, or Theology until 1360 Paris began soy with some instruction in Canon Laas added by 1208, a Law Faculty in 1271, and a Medical Faculty in 1274 Montpellier began as a medical school sometime in the twelfth century Law followed a little later, a teacher froanized by 1242 A sort of theological school began in 1263, but it was not chartered as a faculty until 1421 So it ith many of the early universities These four traditional faculties ell established by the fourteenth century, and continued as the typical forreat university developreat multiplication of subjects of study which characterized the nineteenth century, es have had to be created, particularly in the United States, in response to new modern de material in each faculty was much as we have already indicated After the recovery of the works of Aristotle he came to dominate the instruction in the Faculty of Arts [19] The Statutes of Paris, in 1254, giving the books to be read for the AB and the AM degrees (R 113), sho fully Aristotle had been adopted there as the basis for instruction in Logic, Ethics, and Natural Philosophy by that ti, in 1410 (R 114), show a h the tiely Aristotle predominated there also Oxford (R 115) kept up better the traditions of the earlier Seven Liberal Arts in its requirements, and classified the neorks of Aristotle in three additional ”philosophies”--natural, moral, and metaphysical From four to seven years were required to coh the tendency was to reduce the length of the arts course as secondary schools below the university were evolved [20]
In the Law Faculty, after Theology the largest and most important of all the faculties in the mediaeval university, the _Corpus Juris Civilis_ of Justinian (p 195) and the _Decretum_ of Gratian (p 196) were the textbooks read, with perhaps a little more practical work in discussion than in Arts or Medicine The Oxford course of study in both Civil and Canon Law (R 116 b-c) gives a good idea as to as required for degrees in one of the best of the early law faculties
In the Medical Faculty a variety of books--translations of Hippocrates (p
197), Galen (p 198), Avicenna (p 198), and the works of certain writers at Salerno and Jewish and Moslem writers in Spain--were read and lectured on The list of medical books used at Montpellier, [21] in 1340, which at that time was the foremost place for medical instruction in western Europe, shows the book-nature and the extent of the instruction given at the leading school of medicine of the time It was, moreover, customary at Montpellier for the senior students to spend a su practical work We have here the s of clinical instruction and hospital service, and at this stage medical instruction remained until quite modern times The medical courses at Paris (R 117) and Oxford (R 116 d) were less satisfactory, only book instruction being required
[Illustration: FIG 64 A LECTURE ON CIVIL LAW BY GUILLAUME BENEDICTI (After a sixteenth-century wood engraving, now in the National Library, Paris, Cabinet of Designs)]
Both Law and Medicine were so dominated by the scholastic ideal and ht have been possible in a freer atical Faculty the _Sentences_ of Peter Loiae_ of Thomas Aquinas (p 191) were the textbooks used
The Bible was at first also used soely overshadowed by the other books and by philosophical discussions and debates on all kinds of hair-splitting questions, kept carefully within the limits prescribed by the Church The requireive the course of instruction in one of the best of the theological faculties of the time The teachers were scholastics, and scholastic er Bacon's (1214-1294) criticisical study (R 118), which he calls ”horse loads, not at all [in consonance] with the most holy text of God,”
and ”philosophical, both in substance and ives an idea of the kind of instruction which caical faculties under the dominance of the scholastic philosophers
Years of study were required in each of these three professional faculties, as is shown by the stateiven for Montpellier, Paris (R 117), and Oxford (R 116 a)
[Illustration: FIG 65 LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEYDEN, IN HOLLAND (After an engraving by J C Woudanus, dated 1610) This shoell the chained books, and a coher schools Counting 35 books to the case, this shows a library of 35 volumes on mathematics; 70 volumes each on literature, philosophy, and medicine; 140 volumes of historical books; 175 voluy, or a total of 770 voluood-sized library for the time]
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION A very i a period of study was required in each of the professional faculties, as well as in the Faculty of Arts, is to be found in the lack of textbooks and the methods of instruction followed While the standard textbooks were beco-continued use of the same texts, they were still expensive and not owned by many [22]
[Illustration: PLATE 4 A LECTURE ON THEOLOGY BY ALBERTUS MAGNUS An illuminated picture in a manuscript of 1310, now in the royal collection of copper engravings, at Berlin The ” to his students]
To provide a loan collection of theological books for poor students we find, in 1271, a gift by will to the University of Paris (R 119) of a private library, containing twenty-seven books Even if the students possessed books, the reat length on the texts being studied Besides the loss” or commentary for it--that is, a mass of explanatory notes, summaries, cross-references, opinions by others, and objections to the stateloss” was a book in itself, often larger than the text, and these standard glosses, [24] or commentaries, were used in the university instruction for centuries In Theology and Canon Law they were particularly extensive
All instruction, too, was in Latin The professor read fro as necessary, and to this the student listened
Sometimes he read so slowly that the text could be copied, but in 1355 this method was prohibited at Paris (R 121), and students who tried to force thea din, or by throwing stones,” were to be suspended for a year The first step in the instruction was a minute and subtle analysis of the text itself, in which each line was dissected, analyzed, and paraphrased, and the comments on the text by various authors were set forth Next all passages capable of two interpretations were thrown into the form of a question; _pro_ and _contra_, after the uments on each side were advanced, and the lecturer's conclusion set forth and defended The text was thus worked over day after day inas yet but little to teach, the ood example of the mediaeval plan of university instruction is found in the announcena, about the middle of the thirteenth century, which Rashdall thinks is equally applicable to methods in other subjects Odofredus says: