Part 28 (1/2)

XUNZI.

Introduction.

Before the unification of China by the Qin state in 221 B.C.E., which brought to a close the cla.s.sical period of Chinese philosophy, Confucianism had one last great exponent, Xunzi , whose work represents the highest development of the school in the Warring States period. Whereas the views of Kongzi and Mengzi are preserved only in piecemeal sayings, Xunzi's thought has come down to the present in the form of tightly constructed essays that give sustained discussion of various topics and together const.i.tute a remarkably coherent system of arguments. Although his writing is not quite as colorful as that of Zhuangzi, his style is extremely elegant and forceful, occasionally bursting into poetry that movingly conveys his pa.s.sion for the Confucian way of life.

Much of Xunzi's effort is devoted to ardently defending Confucianism against various challenges. For example, he vehemently condemns Mozi's rejection of ritual and music and argues vigorously that these cultural forms are absolutely necessary. He also attacks Laozi and Zhuangzi for advocating that people adopt the perspective of Heaven and abandon conventional values in favor of yielding to the natural flow of things. Xunzi instead stresses the distinctive importance of the human point of view, and in stark contrast to their emphasis on wuwei , ”nonaction” or ”non-striving action,” he claims that good things are achieved only through wei , ”deliberate effort.” Yet even as he repudiates rival philosophers, Xunzi also learns from them and incorporates their insights. The influence of Zhuangzi on his thought is particularly evident in his characterization of the heart as mirror-like and in his description of how it comes to know the Way, though the substance of Xunzi's views differs considerably from that of Zhuangzi.

For Xunzi, the threats to Confucianism come not only from outside the tradition, but also from within it, in the form of Mengzi's doctrine that human nature is good. In Xunzi's opinion, such a claim undermines the authority of ritual as a guide to behavior, destroys the necessity of learning, and simply flies in the face of the facts. Xunzi makes the opposite declaration that human nature is bad, but this should not be read as saying that people naturally delight in evil. Rather, his point is that people lack any inborn guide to right conduct, and that without the external restraint of ritual they will fall into wrongdoing and be reduced to a chaotic, impoverished state strongly reminiscent of the ”state of nature” depicted by Thomas Hobbes. Nevertheless, Xunzi shares Mengzi's belief that everyone has the potential to achieve moral perfection. However, since we are not inclined to virtue by nature, the process of self-transformation will be slow and difficult, and this idea is reflected in Xunzi's repeated comparison of learning with the harsh processes involved in bending wood.

In his own day, Xunzi was a well-known scholar and was even given high office at one point. Among his students were Han Feizi and Li Si, who was instrumental in bringing about the Qin state's domination of China. Xunzi may even have lived to witness this event. Other students of his were responsible for preserving cla.s.sic Chinese texts, including the Odes. Despite Xunzi's important position in early Chinese intellectual history, when Mengzi's views later came to be favored, Xunzi was rejected for claiming that human nature is bad, and his works were largely neglected for centuries. Recently, however, there has been a renewal of scholarly interest in Xunzi, and he is once again receiving the attention he deserves.

Chapter One: An Exhortation to Learning.

The gentleman says: Learning must never stop. Blue dye is gotten from the indigo plant, and yet it is bluer than the plant. Ice comes from water, and yet it is colder than water. Through steaming and bending, you can make wood straight as a plumb line into a wheel. And after its curve conforms to the compa.s.s, even when parched under the sun it will not become straight again, because the steaming and bending have made it a certain way. Likewise, when wood comes under the ink-line, it becomes straight, and when metal is brought to the whetstone, it becomes sharp.1 The gentleman learns broadly and examines himself thrice daily,2 and then his knowledge is clear and his conduct is without fault.

And so if you do not climb a high mountain, you will not know the height of Heaven. If you do not approach a deep ravine, you will not know the depth of the earth. If you do not hear the words pa.s.sed down from the former kings, you will not know the magnificence of learning. The children of the Han, Yue, Yi, and Mo3 peoples all cry with the same sound at birth, but when grown they have different customs, because teaching makes them be this way. . . .

I once spent the whole day pondering, but it wasn't as good as a moment's worth of learning.4 I once stood on my toes to look far away, but it wasn't as good as the broad view from a high place. If you climb to a high place and wave, you have not lengthened your arms, but you can be seen from farther away. If you shout from upwind, you have not made your voice stronger, but you can be heard more clearly. One who makes use of a chariot and horses has not thereby improved his feet, but he can now go a thousand li. One who makes use of a boat and oars has not thereby become able to swim, but he can now cross rivers and streams. The gentleman is not different from others by birth. Rather, he is good at making use of things. . . .

If you acc.u.mulate enough earth to form a mountain, then wind and rain will arise from it. If you acc.u.mulate enough water to form a deep pool, then dragons will come to live in it. If you acc.u.mulate enough goodness to achieve Virtue, then you will naturally attain to spiritlike powers and enlightenment, and the heart of a sage is complete therein.

And so, If you do not acc.u.mulate little steps, You will have no way to go a thousand li.

If you do not acc.u.mulate small streams, You will have no way to form river or sea.5 Even the famous horse Qi Ji6 could not go more than ten paces in a single leap, but with ten days of riding even an old nag can equal him, because accomplishment rests in not giving up.7 If you start carving and give up, you won't even be able to break rotten wood, but if you start carving and don't give up, then you can engrave even metal and stone. The earthworm does not have sharp teeth and claws, nor does it have strong bones and muscles. Yet, above, it eats of the earth, and below, it drinks from the Yellow Springs,8 because it acts with single-mindedness. In contrast, the crab has six legs and two pincers. Yet were it not for the abandoned holes of water-snakes and eels, it would have no place to lodge, because it is frenetic-minded.

For this reason, Without Somber intention, No brilliant understanding can there be.

Without determined efforts, No glorious achievements will one see. . . .

Where does learning begin? Where does learning end? I say: Its order begins with reciting the cla.s.sics, and ends with studying ritual. Its purpose begins with becoming a n.o.ble man, and ends with becoming a sage. If you truly acc.u.mulate effort for a long time, then you will advance. Learning proceeds until death and only then does it stop. And so the order of learning has a stopping point, but its purpose cannot be given up for even a moment. To pursue it is to be human, to give it up is to be a beast. The History is the record of government affairs. The Odes is the repository of temperate sounds. Rituals are the great divisions in the proper model for things; they are the outlines of the proper cla.s.ses of things. And so learning comes to ritual and then stops, for this is called the ultimate point in pursuit of the Way and Virtue. In the reverence and refinement of ritual, the balance and harmony of music, the broad content of the Odes and History, the subtleties of the Spring and Autumn Annals, all things between Heaven and earth are complete.

The learning of the gentleman enters through his ears, fastens to his heart, spreads through his four limbs, and manifests itself in his actions. His slightest word, his most subtle movement, all can serve as a model for others. The learning of the petty person enters through his ears and pa.s.ses out his mouth. From mouth to ears is only four inches-how could it be enough to improve a whole body much larger than that? Students in ancient times learned for their own sake, but the students of today learn for the sake of impressing others.9 Thus the learning of the gentleman is used to improve his own person, while the learning of the petty man is used like gift-oxen.10 To speak without being asked is what people call being presumptuous, and to speak two things when asked only one is what people call being wordy. Being presumptuous is wrong, and being wordy is wrong. The gentleman is simply like an echo.

In learning, nothing is more expedient than to draw near to the right person. Rituals and music provide proper models but give no precepts. The Odes and History contain ancient stories but no explanation of their present application. The Spring and Autumn Annals is terse and cannot be quickly understood. However, if you imitate the right person in his practice of the precepts of the gentleman, then you will come to honor these things for their comprehensiveness, and see them as encompa.s.sing the whole world. Thus, in learning there is nothing more expedient than to draw near to the right person.

Of the paths to learning, none is quicker than to like the right person, and exalting ritual comes second. If at best you cannot like the right person, and at worst you cannot exalt ritual, then you will simply be learning haphazard knowledge and focusing your intentions on blindly following the Odes and History. If so, then to the end of your days you cannot avoid being nothing more than a vulgar scholar.11 If you are going to take the former kings as your fount and make benevolence and righteousness12 your root, then rituals are exactly the highways and byways for you. It will be like the action of turning up your fur collar by simply curling your five fingers and pulling on it-it goes smoothly numberless times. If you do not take the regulations of ritual as your way, but instead go at it with just the Odes and History, then it will be like trying to measure the depth of a river with your finger, or trying to pound millet with a halberd, or trying to eat out of a pot with an awl-you simply will not succeed at it. And so if you exalt ritual, then even if you are not brilliant, you will still be a man of the proper model. If you do not exalt ritual, then even if you are an acute debater, you will be only a dissolute scholar. . . .

One who misses a single shot out of a hundred does not deserve to be called good at archery. One who falls short of going a thousand li by a half-step does not deserve to be called good at chariot-driving. One who does not fully comprehend the proper kinds and cla.s.ses of things, or who is not single-minded in pursuit of benevolence and righteousness, does not deserve to be called good at learning. Learning is precisely learning to pursue them single-mindedly. To depart from it in one affair and enter into it in another is the way of common people. The good men among them are few. The bad men among them are many. Such were Jie and Zhou and Robber Zhi. Make it perfect and complete, and only then is it truly learning.

The gentleman knows that whatever is imperfect and unrefined does not deserve praise. And so he repeatedly recites his learning in order to master it, ponders it over in order to comprehend it, makes his person so as to dwell in it, and eliminates things harmful to it in order to nourish it. He makes his eyes not want to see what is not right, makes his ears not want to hear what is not right, makes his mouth not want to speak what is not right, and makes his heart not want to deliberate over what is not right.13 He comes to the point where he loves it, and then his eyes love it more than the five colors, his ears love it more than the five tones, his mouth loves it more than the five flavors, and his heart considers it more profitable than possessing the whole world. For this reason, power and profit cannot sway him, the ma.s.ses cannot s.h.i.+ft him, and nothing in the world can shake him.14 He lives by this, and he dies by this. This is called grasping Virtue. When one has grasped Virtue, then one can achieve fixity. When one can achieve fixity, then one can respond to things. To be capable both of fixity and of responding to things-such a one is called the perfected person. Heaven shows off its brilliance, earth shows off its breadth, and the gentleman values his perfection.

Chapter Two: Cultivating Oneself.

When you observe goodness in others, then inspect yourself, desirous of studying it. When you observe badness in others, then examine yourself, fearful of discovering it.15 If you find goodness in your person, then approve of yourself, desirous of holding firm to it. If you find badness in your person, then reproach yourself, regarding it as calamity. And so, he who rightly criticizes me is my teacher, and he who rightly supports me is my friend, while he who flatters and toadies to me is someone who would do me villainy. Accordingly, the gentleman exalts his teachers and loves his friends, so as to utterly hate those who would do him villainy. He loves goodness tirelessly, and can receive admonitions and take heed. Even if he desired not to improve, how could he avoid it?

The petty man is the opposite. He is utterly disorderly, but hates for people to criticize him. He is utterly unworthy, but wishes for people to consider him worthy. His heart is like that of a tiger or wolf, and his conduct like that of beasts, but he hates for people to consider him a villain. To those who flatter and toady to him he shows favor, while those who would admonish him he keeps at a distance. Those who try to be correct he considers laughable, and those truly loyal to him he considers villains. Even though he wishes not to perish, how could he avoid it? The Odes says, They conspire and slander. How greatly lamentable!

Plans worth adopting, they wholly reject.

Plans worth dismissing, they wholly accept.16 This expresses my meaning.

The measure for goodness in all things is this: Use it to control your qi and nourish your life, Then you will live longer than Peng Zu.

Use it to cultivate yourself and establish your fame, Then you will equal Yao and Yu.

It is fitting in times of prosperity.

It is useful in facing adversity -truly such is ritual. If your exertions of blood, qi, intention, and thought accord with ritual, they will be ordered and effective. If they do not accord with ritual, they will be disorderly and unproductive. If your meals, clothing, dwelling, and activities accord with ritual, they will be congenial and well regulated. If they do not accord with ritual, then you will encounter dangers and illnesses. If your countenance, bearing, movements, and stride accord with ritual, they will be graceful. If they do not accord with ritual, they will be barbaric, obtuse, perverse, vulgar, and unruly. Hence, In lives without ritual people cannot survive; In affairs without ritual success does not thrive; To states without ritual peace does not arrive.

The Odes says, ”Their rituals and ceremonies completely follow the proper measure. Their laughter and speech are completely appropriate.”17 This expresses my meaning.

To lead others along in what is good is called ”teaching.” To harmonize with others in what is good is called ”proper compliance.” To lead others along in what is bad is called ”flattery.” To harmonize with others in what is bad is called ”toadying.” To approve of what is right and condemn what is wrong is called ”wisdom.” To approve of what is wrong and condemn what is right is called ”stupidity.” To attack a good person is called ”slander.” To injure a good person is called ”villainy.” To call the right as right and the wrong as wrong is called ”uprightness.” To steal goods is called ”thievery.” To conceal one's actions is called ”deceptiveness.” To speak too easily of things is called ”boastfulness.” To be without fixity in one's likes and dislikes is called ”lacking constancy.” To abandon righteousness in favor of profit is called ”utmost villainy.” To have heard many things is called ”broadness.” To have heard few things is called ”shallowness.” To have seen many things is called ”being learned.” To have seen few things is called ”boorishness.”18 To have difficulty in progressing is called ”indolence.” To forget things easily is called ”being leaky.” For one's actions to be few and well ordered is called ”being controlled.” For one's actions to be many and disorderly is called ”being wasteful.”

These are the methods for controlling the qi and nouris.h.i.+ng the heart: For unyielding qi, soften it with harmoniousness. For overly deep thinking, simplify it with easy goodness. For overly ferocious courage, reform it with proper compliance. For expedience-seeking hastiness, restrain it with regulated movements. For small-minded narrowness, broaden it with expansiveness. For excessive humility, sluggishness, or greed for profit, resist it with lofty intentions. For vulgarness or dissoluteness, expunge it with teachers and friends. For indolence or profligacy, illuminate it with the prospect of disasters. For simpleminded rect.i.tude or honest integrity, make it suitable with ritual and music, and enlighten it with reflection. In each method of controlling the qi and nouris.h.i.+ng the heart, nothing is more direct than following ritual, nothing is more important than having a good teacher, and nothing works with greater spiritlike efficacy than to like it with single-minded devotion. These are called the methods for controlling the qi and nouris.h.i.+ng the heart.

One whose intentions and thoughts are cultivated will disregard wealth and n.o.bility. One whose greatest concern is for the Way and righteousness will take lightly kings and dukes. It is simply that when one examines oneself on the inside, external goods carry little weight. A saying goes, ”The gentleman makes things his servants. The petty man is servant to things.” This expresses my meaning. If an action tires your body but puts your heart at ease, do it. If it involves little profit but much righteousness, do it. Being successful in the service of a ruler who creates chaos is not as good as simply being compliant in the service of an impoverished ruler. And so, a good farmer does not fail to plant because of drought, a good merchant does not fail to open shop because of losses, and the n.o.ble man and the gentleman are not lax in their pursuit of the Way because of poverty.

If your bearing is reverent and respectful and your heart is loyal and faithful, if your method is ritual and the standards of righteousness and your disposition19 is concern for others, then you may wander across the whole world, and even if you become trapped among barbarians, no one will not value you. If you are eager to take the lead in laborious matters, if you can give way in pleasant matters, and if you show integrity, honesty, reliability faithfulness, self-control, and meticulousness, then you may wander across the whole world, and even if you become trapped among barbarians, no one will not employ you. If your bearing is arrogant and obtuse and your heart is stubborn and deceitful, if your method is to follow Mozi20 and your truest essence is polluted and corrupt, then you may wander across the whole world, and even if you reach every corner of it, no one will not consider you base. If you try to put off or wriggle out of laborious matters, if you are grasping and will not yield in pleasant matters, if you are perverse and dishonest, if you are not meticulous in work, then you may wander across the whole world, and even if you reach every corner of it, no one will not reject you. . . .

He who likes the right model and carries it out is a man of good breeding. He who focuses his intentions upon it and embodies it is a gentleman. He who completely understands it and practices it without tiring is a sage. If a person lacks the proper model, then he will act recklessly. If he has the proper model but does not fix his intentions on its true meaning, then he will act too rigidly. If he relies on the proper model and also deeply understands its categories, only then will he act with comfortable mastery of it.