Part 15 (1/2)

Other research has found that the employment partic.i.p.ation rates of women vary across professions. A study of women from the Harvard graduating cla.s.ses of 1988 to 1991 found that fifteen years after graduation, married women with children who had become M.D.s had the highest labor force partic.i.p.ation rate (94.2%), while married women with children who went on to get other degrees had much lower labor force partic.i.p.ation rates: Ph.D.s (85.5%), J.D.s (77.6%), MBAs (71.7%). These findings suggest professional cultures play a role in women's rates of employment. See Jane Leber Herr and Catherine Wolfram, ”Work Environment and 'Opt-Out' Rates at Motherhood Across Higher-Education Career Paths” (November 2011), faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/wolfram/Papers/OptOut_ILRRNov11.pdf.

12. This survey of Yale alumni from the cla.s.ses of 1979, 1984, 1989, and 1994 was conducted in 2000 as cited in Louise Story, ”Many Women at Elite Colleges Set Career Path to Motherhood,” New York Times, September 20, 2005, /2005/09/20/national/20women.html?pagewanted=all.

13. Amy Sennett, ”Work and Family: Life After Princeton for the Cla.s.s of 2006” (July 2006), mentary, see K.J. Dell'Antonia, ”The Census Bureau Counts Fathers as 'Child Care,' ” New York Times, February 8, 2012, parenting.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/02/08/the-census-bureau-counts-fathers-as-child-care/.

6. Laughlin, Who's Minding the Kids?, 79.

7. Maria Shriver, ”Gloria Steinem,” Interview, July 15, 2011, /culture/gloria-steinem/.

8. For a review of studies on maternal gatekeeping, see Sarah J. Schoppe-Sullivan et al., ”Maternal Gatekeeping, Coparenting Quality, and Fathering Behavior in Families with Infants,” Journal of Family Psychology 22, no. 3 (2008): 38990.

9. Sarah M. Allen and Alan J. Hawkins, ”Maternal Gatekeeping: Mothers' Beliefs and Behaviors That Inhibit Greater Father Involvement in Family Work,” Journal of Marriage and Family 61, no. 1 (1999): 209.

10. Richard L. Zweigenhaft and G. William Domhoff, The New CEOs: Women, African American, Latino and Asian American Leaders of Fortune 500 Companies (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), 2829.

11. James B. Stewart, ”A C.E.O.'s Support System, a k a Husband,” New York Times, November 4, 2011, /2011/11/05/business/a-ceos-support-system-a-k-a-husband.html?pagewanted=all.

12. Pamela Stone, Opting Out? Why Women Really Quit Careers and Head Home (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 62.

13. Stewart, ”A C.E.O.'s Support System.”

14. For a thorough review, see Michael E. Lamb, The Role of the Father in Child Development (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2010); and Anna Sarkadi et al., ”Fathers' Involvement and Children's Developmental Outcomes: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies,” Acta Paediatrica 97, no. 2 (2008): 15358.

15. Elisabeth Duursma, Barbara Alexander Pan, and Helen Raikes, ”Predictors and Outcomes of Low-Income Fathers' Reading with Their Toddlers,” Early Childhood Research Quarterly 23, no. 3 (2008): 35165; Joseph H. Pleck and Brian P. Masciadrelli, ”Paternal Involvement in U.S. Residential Fathers: Levels, Sources, and Consequences,” in The Role of the Father in Child Development, ed. Michael E. Lamb (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2004): 22271; Ronald P. Rohner and Robert A. Veneziano, ”The Importance of Father Love: History and Contemporary Evidence,” Review of General Psychology 5, no. 4 (2001): 382405; W. Jean Yeung, ”Fathers: An Overlooked Resource for Children's Educational Success,” in After the Bell-Family Background, Public Policy, and Educational Success, ed. Dalton Conley and Karen Albright (London: Routledge, 2004), 14569; and Lois W. Hoffman and Lise M. Youngblade, Mothers at Work: Effects on Children's Well-Being (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).