Volume 3, Part 1, Slice 2 Part 17 (1/2)

His _Life_ (1861) has been written by his son, Sir Edward Baines (1800-1890), who was editor and afterwards proprietor of the _Leeds Mercury_, M.P. for Leeds (1859-1874), and was knighted in 1880; his _History of the Cotton Manufacture_ (1835) was long a standard authority.

An elder son, Matthew Talbot Baines (1790-1860), went to the bar, and became recorder of Hull (1837). He became M.P. for Hull in 1847, and in 1849 president of the Poor Law Board. In 1852 he was returned for Leeds, and again became president of the Poor Law Board (till 1855). In 1856 he entered the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.

BAINI, GIUSEPPE (1775-1844), Italian priest, musical critic and composer of church music, was born at Rome on the 21st of October 1775. He was instructed in composition by his uncle, Lorenzo Baini, and afterwards by G.

Jannaconi. In 1814 he was appointed musical director to the choir of the pontifical chapel, to which he had as early as 1802 gained admission in virtue of his fine ba.s.s voice. His compositions, of which very few have been published, were very favourable specimens of the severe ecclesiastical style; one in particular, a ten-part _Miserere_, composed for Holy Week in 1821 by order of Pope Pius VII., has taken a permanent place in the services of the Sistine chapel during Pa.s.sion Week. Baini held a higher place, however, as a musical critic and historian than as a composer, and his _Life of Palestrina_ (_Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle opere di Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina_, 1828) ranks as one of the best works of its cla.s.s. The phrase _Il Principe della Musica_, which has become finally a.s.sociated with the name of Palestrina, originates with this biography. Giuseppe Baini died on the 21st of May 1844 in Rome.

BAIRAM, a Perso-Turkish word meaning ”festival,” applied in Turkish to the two princ.i.p.al festivals of Islam. The first of these, according to the calendar, is the ”Lesser Festival,” called by the Turks _Kutshuk Bair[=a]m_ (”Lesser Bairam”), or _Sheker Bair[=a]m_ (”Sugar Bairam”), and by Arabic-speaking Moslems _'[=I]d al-Fitr_ (”Festival of Fast-breaking”), or _Al-'[=i]d a[s.]-[s.]agh[=i]r_ (”Lesser Festival”). It follows immediately the ninth or the fasting-month, Rama[d.][=a]n, occupying the first three days of the tenth month, Shaww[=a]l. It is, therefore, also called by Turks _Ramaz[=a]n Bair[=a]m_, and exhibits more outward signs of rejoicing than the technically ”Greater Festival.” Official receptions are held on it, and private visits paid; friends congratulate one another, and presents are given; new clothes [v.03 p.0224] are put on, and the graves of relatives are visited. The second, or ”Greater Festival,” is called by the Turks _Qurb[=a]n Bair[=a]m_, ”Sacrifice Bairam,” and by Arabic speakers _Al-'[=i]d al-kab[=i]r_, ”Greater Festival,” or _'[=I][d.]

al-a[d.][h.][=a]_, ”Festival of Sacrifice.” It falls on the tenth, and two or three following days, of the last month, _Dh[=u]-l-[h.]ijja_, when the pilgrims each slay a ram, a he-goat, a cow or a camel in the valley of Mina in commemoration of the ransom of Ishmael with a ram. Similarly throughout the Moslem world, all who can afford it sacrifice at this time a legal animal, and either consume the flesh themselves or give it to the poor.

Otherwise it is celebrated like the ”Lesser Festival,” but with less ardour. Both festivals, of course, belong to a lunar calendar, and move through the solar year every thirty-two years.

See Lane's _Modern Egyptians_, chap. xxv.; Mich.e.l.l, _Egyptian Calendar_; Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, pp. 192 ff.; Sir R. Burton, _Pilgrimage_, chaps. vii., x.x.x.

(D. B. MA.)

BAIRD, SIR DAVID (1757-1829), British general, was born at Newbyth in Aberdeens.h.i.+re in December 1757. He entered the British army in 1773, and was sent to India in 1779 with the 73rd (afterwards 71st) Highlanders, in which he was a captain. Immediately on his arrival, Baird was attached to the force commanded by Sir Hector Munro, which was sent forward to a.s.sist the detachment of Colonel Baillie, threatened by Hyder Ali. In the action which followed the whole force was destroyed, and Baird, severely wounded, fell into the hands of the Mysore chief. The prisoners, who were most barbarously treated, remained captive for over four years. Baird's mother, on hearing that her son and other prisoners were in fetters, is said to have remarked, ”G.o.d help the chiel chained to poor Davie.” The bullet was not extracted from Baird's wound until his release. He became major in 1787, visited England in 1789, and purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in 1790, returning to India in the following year. He held a brigade command in the war against Tippoo, and served under Cornwallis in the Seringapatam operations of 1792, being promoted colonel in 1795. Baird served also at the Cape of Good Hope as a brigadier-general, and he returned to India as a major-general in 1798. In the last war against Tippoo in 1799 Baird was appointed to the senior brigade command in the army. At the successful a.s.sault of Seringapatam Baird led the storming party, and was soon a master of the stronghold in which he had long been a prisoner. He had been disappointed that the command of the large contingent of the nizam was given to Colonel Arthur Wellesley; and when after the capture of the fortress the same officer obtained the governors.h.i.+p, Baird judged himself to have been treated with injustice and disrespect. He afterwards received the thanks of parliament and of the East India Company for his gallant bearing on that important day, and a pension was offered to him by the Company, which he declined, apparently from the hope of receiving the order of the Bath from the government. General Baird commanded the Indian army which was sent in 1801 to co-operate with Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. Wellesley was appointed second in command, but owing to ill-health did not accompany the expedition. Baird landed at Kosseir, conducted his army across the desert to Kena on the Nile, and thence to Cairo. He arrived before Alexandria in time for the final operations. On his return to India in 1802, he was employed against Sindhia, but being irritated at another appointment given to Wellesley he relinquished his command and returned to Europe. In 1804 he was knighted, and in 1805-1806, being by now a lieutenant-general, he commanded the expedition against the Cape of Good Hope with complete success, capturing Cape Town and forcing the Dutch general Janssens to surrender. But here again his usual ill luck attended him. Commodore Sir Home Popham persuaded Sir David to lend him troops for an expedition against Buenos Aires; the successive failures of operations against this place involved the recall of Baird, though on his return home he was quickly re-employed as a divisional general in the Copenhagen expedition of 1807. During the bombardment of Copenhagen Baird was wounded. Shortly after his return, he was sent out to the Peninsular War in command of a considerable force which was sent to Spain to co-operate with Sir John Moore, to whom he was appointed second in command.

It was Baird's misfortune that he was junior by a few days both to Moore and to Lord Cavan, under whom he had served at Alexandria, and thus never had an opportunity of a chief command in the field. At the battle of Corunna he succeeded to the supreme command after Moore's fall, but shortly afterwards his left arm was shattered, and the command pa.s.sed to Sir John Hope. He again obtained the thanks of parliament for his gallant services, and was made a K.B. and a baronet. Sir David married Miss Campbell-Preston, a Perths.h.i.+re heiress, in 1810. He was not employed again in the field, and personal and political enmities caused him to be neglected and repeatedly pa.s.sed over. He was not given the full rank of general until 1814, and his governors.h.i.+p of Kinsale was given five years later. In 1820 he was appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland, but the command was soon reduced, and he resigned in 1822. He died on the 18th of August 1829.

See Theodore Hook's _Life of Sir David Baird_.

BAIRD, HENRY MARTYN (1832-1906), American historian and educationalist, a son of Robert Baird (1798-1863), a Presbyterian preacher and author who worked earnestly both in the United States and in Europe for the cause of temperance, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 17th of January 1832. He spent eight years of his early youth with his father in Paris and Geneva, and in 1850 graduated at New York University. He then lived for two years in Italy and Greece, was a student in the Union Theological Seminary in New York city from 1853 to 1855, and in 1856 graduated at the Princeton Theological Seminary. He was a tutor for four years in the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and from 1859 until his death was professor of Greek language and literature in New York University. He is best known, however, as a historian of the Huguenots. His work, which appeared in three parts, ent.i.tled respectively _History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France_ (2 vols., 1879), _The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre_ (2 vols., 1886), and _The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes_ (2 vols., 1895), is characterized by painstaking thoroughness, by a judicial temper, and by scholars.h.i.+p of a high order. He also published _Modern Greece, A Narrative of a Residence and Travels in that Country_ (1856); a biography of his father, _The Life of the Rev. Robert Baird, D.D._ (1866); and _Theodore Beza, the Counsellor of the French Reformation_ (1899). He died in New York city on the 11th of November 1906.

His brother, CHARLES WAs.h.i.+NGTON BAIRD (1828-1887), a graduate of New York University (1848) and of the Union Theological Seminary (1852), and the minister in turn of a Dutch Reformed church at Brooklyn, New York, and of a Presbyterian church at Rye, New York, also was deeply interested in the history of the Huguenots, and published a scholarly work ent.i.tled _The History of the Huguenot Emigration to America_ (2 vols., 1885), left unfinished at his death.

BAIRD, JAMES (1802-1876) Scottish iron-master, was born at Kirkwood, Lanarks.h.i.+re, on the 5th of December 1802, the son of a coal-master. In 1826 his father, two brothers and himself leased coalfields at Gartsherrie and in the vicinity, and in 1828 iron mines near by, and in 1830 built blast furnaces. In this year the father retired, the firm of William Baird & Co.

was organized, and James Baird a.s.sumed active control. His improvements in machinery largely increased the output of his furnaces, which by 1864 had grown in number to nearly fifty, producing 300,000 tons annually and employing 10,000 hands. The brothers became great landowners, and James was M.P. for the Falkirk burghs in 1851-1852 and 1852-1857. He died at his estate near Ayr on the 20th of June 1876, leaving property valued at three million pounds. He had been during his life a great public benefactor, founding schools and the Baird Lectures (1871) for the defence of orthodox theology, and in 1873 the Baird Trust of 500,000 to enable the Established Church of Scotland to cope with the spiritual needs of the ma.s.ses. He was twice married but left no children.

BAIRD, SPENCER FULLERTON (1823-1887), American naturalist, was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, on the 3rd of [v.03 p.0225] February 1823. He graduated at d.i.c.kinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania in 1840, and next year made an ornithological excursion through the mountains of Pennsylvania, walking, says one of his biographers, ”400 m. in twenty-one days, and the last day 60 m.” In 1838 he met J. J. Audubon, and thenceforward his studies were largely ornithological, Audubon giving him a part of his own collection of birds. After studying medicine for a time, Baird became professor of natural history in d.i.c.kinson College in 1845, a.s.suming also the duties of the chair of chemistry, and giving instruction in physiology and mathematics. This variety of duties in a small college tended to give him that breadth of scientific interest which characterized him through life, and made him perhaps the most representative general man of science in America. For the long period between 1850 and 1878 he was a.s.sistant-secretary of the Smithsonian Inst.i.tution, Was.h.i.+ngton, and on the death of Joseph Henry he became secretary. From 1871 till his death he was U.S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. While an officer of the Smithsonian, Baird's duties included the superintendence of the labour of workers in widely different lines. Thus, apart from his a.s.sistance to others, his own studies and published writings cover a broad range: iconography, geology, mineralogy, botany, anthropology, general zoology, and, in particular, ornithology; while for a series of years he edited an annual volume summarizing progress in all scientific lines of investigation. He gave general superintendence, between 1850 and 1860, to several government expeditions for scientific exploration of the western territories of the United States, preparing for them a manual of _Instructions to Collectors_. Of his own publications, the bibliography by G. Brown Goode, from 1843 to the close of 1882, includes 1063 entries, of which 775 were short articles in his _Annual Record_. His most important volumes, on the whole, were _Birds_, in the series of reports of explorations and surveys for a railway route from the Mississippi river to the Pacific ocean (1858), of which Dr Elliott Coues says (as quoted in the _Popular Science Monthly_, x.x.xiii. 553) that it ”exerted an influence perhaps stronger and more widely felt than that of any of its predecessors, Audubon's and Wilson's not excepted, and marked an epoch in the history of American ornithology”; _Mammals of North America: Descriptions based on Collections in the Smithsonian Inst.i.tution_ (Philadelphia, 1859); and the monumental work (with Thomas Mayo Brewer and Robert Ridgway) _History of North American Birds_ (Boston, 1875-1884; ”Land Birds,” 3 vols., ”Water Birds,” 2 vols). He died on the 19th of August 1887 at the great marine biological laboratory at Woods Hole, Ma.s.sachusetts, an inst.i.tution which was largely the result of his own efforts, and which has exercised a wide effect upon both scientific and economic ichthyology.

BAIRNSDALE, a town of Tanjil county, Victoria, Australia, on the Mitch.e.l.l river, 171 m. by rail E. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3074. It lies near the head of a lagoon called Lake King, which is open to the sea, and affords regular communication by water with Melbourne. In the district, which is chiefly pastoral, there are several goldfields, with both alluvial and reef mining. The town has tanneries, and cheese and b.u.t.ter factories. There is an active s.h.i.+pping trade with Melbourne in maize and other grain, hops, fruit and dairy produce.

BAITER, JOHANN GEORG (1801-1877), Swiss philologist and textual critic, was born at Zurich on the 31st of May 1801. Having received his early education in his native place, he went (1818) to the university of Tubingen, but from want of funds was obliged to return to Zurich, where for several years he was a private tutor. From 1824 to 1829 he studied at Munich under Friedrich Thiersch; at Gottingen, under Georg Dissen; at Konigsberg, under Christian Lobeck. From 1833 to 1876 he was _Oberlehrer_ at the gymnasium in Zurich, where he died on the 10th of October 1877. Baiter's strong point was textual criticism, applied chiefly to Cicero and the Attic orators; he was very successful in hunting up the best MS. authorities, and his collations were made with the greatest accuracy. Most of his works were produced in collaboration with other scholars, such as Orelli, who regarded him as his right-hand man. He edited Isocrates, _Panegyricus_ (1831); with Sauppe, Lycurgus, _Leocratea_ (1834) and _Oratores Attici_ (1838-1850); with Orelli and Winckelmann, a critical edition of Plato (1839-1842), which marked a distinct advance in the text, two new MSS. being laid under contribution; with Orelli, Babrius, _Fabellae Iambicae nuper repertae_ (1845); Isocrates, in the Didot collection of cla.s.sics (1846). He had for some time been a.s.sociated with Orelli in his great work on Cicero, and a.s.sisted in _Ciceronis Scholiastae_ (1833) and _Onomasticon Tullianum_ (1836-1838). For the _Fasti Consulares_ and _Triumphales_ he was alone responsible. With Orelli and (after his death) Halm, he a.s.sisted in the second edition of the Cicero, and, with Kayser, edited the same author for the Tauchnitz series (1860-1869). New editions of Orelli's Tacitus and Horace were also due to him. It is worth noting that, with Sauppe, he translated Leake's _Topography of Athens_.

BAIUS, or DE BAY, MICHAEL (1513-1589), Belgian theologian, was born at Melun in Hainault in 1513. Educated at Louvain University, he studied philosophy and theology with distinguished success, and was rewarded by a series of academic appointments. In 1552 Charles V. appointed him professor of scriptural interpretation in the university. In 1563 he was nominated one of the Belgian representatives at the council of Trent, but arrived too late to take an important part in its deliberations. At Louvain, however, he obtained a great name as a leader in the anti-scholastic reaction of the 16th century. The champions of this reaction fought under the banner of St Augustine; and Baius' Augustinian predilections brought him into conflict with Rome on questions of grace, free-will and the like. In 1567 Pius V.

condemned seventy-nine propositions from his writings in the Bull _Ex omnibus afflictionibus_. To this Baius submitted; though certain indiscreet utterances on the part of himself and his supporters led to a renewal of the condemnation in 1579 by Gregory XIII. Baius, however, was not disturbed in the tenure of his professors.h.i.+p, and even became chancellor of Louvain in 1575. He died, still in the enjoyment of these two dignities, in 1589.

Baius is chiefly interesting as a forerunner of the more celebrated Cornelius Jansen (see JANSEN). His writings are described by Harnack as a curious mixture of Catholic orthodoxy and unconscious tendencies to Protestantism; their most noticeable point is the great importance they attach to the fact of sin, both original and actual.

His princ.i.p.al works were published in a collected form at Cologne, 1696, 1 vol. 4to, in two parts; some large treatises have not been published. There is an excellent study of both books and author by Linsenmann, _Michael Baius, und die Grundlegung des Jansenismus_, published at Tubingen in 1867.

BAIZE (16th century Fr. _baies_, cf. English ”bay”), a material probably named from its original colour, though a derivation is also suggested from the Fr. _baie_, as the cloth is said to have been originally dyed with Avignon berries. It is generally a coa.r.s.e, woollen cloth with a long nap and is commonly dyed green or red. It is now also made of cotton. The manufacture is said to have been introduced into England in the 16th century by refugees from France and the Netherlands. It is used chiefly for curtains, linings, &c., and sometimes, in the lighter makes, for clothing.

_Table baize_ is a kind of oilcloth used as a cheap and easily-cleaned covering for tables.

BAJOCIAN, in geology, the name proposed in 1849 by d'Orbigny for the rocks of Middle Jura.s.sic age which are well developed in the neighbourhood of Bayeux, Calvados. The Bajocian stage is practically equivalent to the Inferior Oolite of British geologists. It corresponds fairly closely with the Lower and Middle Brown Jura of Quenstedt, and with the Dogger of Oppel.

By means of the fossil ammonites the Bajocia strata have been subdivided into the following zones, in descending order:--

Zone of _Parkinsonia Parkinsoni_ and _Cosmoceras garantianum_ ” _Coeloceras subcoronatum_ (_Humphriesianum_) ” _Sonninia Romani_ ” _Stephaeoceras Sowerbyi_ ” _Harpoceras concavum_ ” ” _Murchisonae_ Substage Aalenien ” ” _opalinum_ / of Mayer-Eymar.

It should be remarked that some European geologists prefer [v.03 p.0226] to include the _Parkinsonia_ zone in the base of the overlying Bathonian (_q.v._).

The Bajocian rocks of Europe are mostly limestones of various kinds, very frequently oolitic. At Bayeux, the type district, they are ferruginous oolites; in the Jura and Lorraine a coral limestone overlies a crinoidal variety; calcareous sandy and marly beds occur in Maine and Anjou; in Poitou the limestone is dolomitic and bears nodules of chert. Rocks of the same age, as recognized by their fossil contents, have a wide range; they are found in north Africa, Goa, Somaliland, German East Africa, and north-west Madagascar; through southern Europe they may be followed into Turkestan, and the Kota-Maleri beds of the Upper Gondwana series of India may possibly belong to this stage. In South America they appear in Bolivia, Chile and Argentina; in North America, in British Columbia, Dakota, Mexico, Oregon and California. The Bajocian sea also included parts of New South Wales, New Zealand (Flag Hills beds?), Borneo and j.a.pan, and it extended into the polar region of eastern Greenland and Franz Josef Land.