Volume 3, Part 1, Slice 2 Part 8 (1/2)

BADHAM, CHARLES (1813-1884), English scholar, was born at Ludlow, in Shrops.h.i.+re, on the 18th of July 1813. His father, Charles Badham, translator of Juvenal and an excellent cla.s.sical scholar, was regius professor of physic at Glasgow; his mother was a cousin of Thomas Campbell, the poet. When about seven [v.03 p.0189] years old, Badham was sent to Switzerland, where he became a pupil of Pestalozzi. He was afterwards transferred to Eton, and in 1830 was elected to a scholars.h.i.+p at Wadham College, Oxford, but only obtained a third cla.s.s in cla.s.sics (1836), a failure which may have been due to his dislike of the methods of study then in fas.h.i.+on at Oxford, at a time when cla.s.sical scholars.h.i.+p was in a very unsatisfactory condition. Shortly after taking his degree in 1837 Badham went to Italy, where he occupied himself in the study of ancient MSS., in particular those of the Vatican library. It was here that he began a life-long friends.h.i.+p with G. C. Cobet. He afterwards spent some time in Germany, and on his return to England was incorporated M.A. at Peterhouse, Cambridge, in 1847. Having taken holy orders, he was appointed headmaster of Louth grammar school, Lincolns.h.i.+re (1851-1854), and subsequently headmaster of Edgbaston proprietary school, near Birmingham. In the interval he had taken the degree of D.D. at Cambridge (1852). In 1860 he received the honorary degree of doctor of letters at the university of Leiden. In 1866 he left England to take up the professors.h.i.+p of cla.s.sics and logic in Sydney University, which he held until his death on the 26th of February 1884. He was twice married. Dr Badham's cla.s.sical attainments were recognized by the most famous European critics, such as G. C. Cobet, Ludwig Preller, W. Dindorf, F. W. Schneidewin, J. A. F. Meineke, A. Ritschl and Tischendorf. Like many schoolmasters who are good scholars and even good teachers, he was not a professional success; and his hasty temper and dislike of anything approaching disingenuousness may have stood in the way of his advancement. But it is strange that a scholar and textual critic of his eminence and of European reputation should have made comparatively little mark in his native country. He published editions of Euripides, _Helena_ and _Iphigenia in Tauris_ (1851), _Ion_ (1851); Plato's _Philebus_ (1855, 1878); _Laches_ and _Euthydemus_ (1865), _Phaedrus_ (1851), _Symposium_ (1866) and _De Platonis Epistolis_ (1866). He also contributed to _Mnemosyne_ (Cobet's journal) and other cla.s.sical periodicals. His _Adhortatio ad Discipulos Academiae Sydniensis_ (1869) contains a number of emendations of Thucydides and other cla.s.sical authors. He also published an article on ”The Text of Shakespere” in _Cambridge Essays_ (1856); _Criticism applied to Shakespere_ (1846); _Thoughts on Cla.s.sical and Commercial Education_ (1864).

A collected edition of his _Speeches and Lectures delivered in Australia_ (Sydney, 1890) contains a memoir by Thomas Butler.

BADIUS, JODOCUS or JOSSE (1462-1535), sometimes called BADIUS ASCENSIUS from the village of Asche, near Brussels, where he was born, an eminent printer at Paris, whose establishment was celebrated under the name of _Prelum Ascensianum_. He was himself a scholar of considerable repute, had studied at Brussels and Ferrara, and before settling in Paris, had taught Greek for several years at Lyons. He ill.u.s.trated with notes several of the cla.s.sics which he printed, and was the author of numerous pieces, amongst which are a life of Thomas a Kempis, and a satire on the follies of women, ent.i.tled _Navicula Stultarum Mulierum_.

BADLESMERE, BARTHOLOMEW, BARON (1275-1322), English n.o.bleman, was the son and heir of Gunselm de Badlesmere (d. 1301), and fought in the English army both in France and Scotland during the later years of the reign of Edward I. In 1307 he became governor of Bristol Castle, and afterwards Edward II.

appointed him steward of his household; but these marks of favour did not prevent him from making a compact with some other n.o.blemen to gain supreme influence in the royal council. Although very hostile to Earl Thomas of Lancaster, Badlesmere helped to make peace between the king and the earl in 1318, and was a member of the middle party which detested alike Edward's minions, like the Despensers, and his violent enemies like Lancaster. The king's conduct, however, drew him to the side of the earl, and he had already joined Edward's enemies when, in October 1321, his wife, Margaret de Clare, refused to admit Queen Isabella to her husband's castle at Leeds in Kent. The king captured the castle, seized and imprisoned Lady Badlesmere, and civil war began. After the defeat of Lancaster at Boroughbridge, Badlesmere was taken and hanged at Canterbury on the 14th of April 1322. His son and heir, Giles, died without children in 1338.

BADMINTON, or GREAT BADMINTON, a village in the southern parliamentary division of Gloucesters.h.i.+re, England, 100 m. W. of London by the Great Western railway (direct line to south Wales). Here is Badminton House, the seat of the dukes of Beaufort, standing in a park some 10 m. in circ.u.mference. The manor of Badminton was acquired in 1608 from Nicolas Boteler (to whose family it had belonged for several centuries) by Thomas, Viscount Somerset (d. 1650 or 1651), third son of Edward, 4th earl of Worcester, and was given by his daughter and heiress Elizabeth to Henry Somerset, 3rd marquess of Worcester and 1st duke of Beaufort (1629-1699), who built the present mansion (1682) on the site of the old manor house. It is a stone building in Palladian style, and contains a number of splendid paintings and much fine wood-carving. The parish church of St. Michael stands close to it. This is a Grecian building (1785), with a richly ornamented ceiling and inlaid altar-pavement; it also contains much fine sculpture in the memorials to former dukes, and is the burial-place of Field Marshal Lord Raglan, who was the youngest son of the 5th duke of Beaufort. Raglan Castle, near Monmouth, now a beautiful ruin, was the seat of the earls and the 1st marquess of Worcester, until it was besieged by the Parliamentarians in 1646, and after its capitulation was dismantled.

BADMINTON, a game played with rackets and shuttlec.o.c.ks, its name being taken from the duke of Beaufort's seat in Gloucesters.h.i.+re. The game appears to have been first played in England about 1873, but before that time it was played in India, where it is still very popular. The Badminton a.s.sociation in England was founded in 1895, and its laws were framed from a code of rules drawn up in 1887 for the Bath Badminton Club and based on the original Poona (1876) rules. In England the game is almost always played in a covered court. The All England champions.h.i.+ps for gentlemen's doubles, ladies' doubles, and mixed doubles were inst.i.tuted in 1899, and for gentlemen's singles and ladies' singles in 1900; and the first champions.h.i.+p between England and Ireland was played in 1904. Badminton may be played by daylight or by artificial light, either with two players on each side (the four-handed or double game) or with one player on each side (the two-handed or single game). The game consists entirely of volleying and is extremely fast, a single at Badminton being admitted to require more staying power than a single at lawn tennis. There is much scope for judgment and skill, _e.g._ in ”dropping” (hitting the shuttle gently just over the net) and in ”smas.h.i.+ng” (hitting the shuttle with a hard downward stroke). The measurements of the court are shown on the accompanying plan.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

_Diagram of Court._--In the two-handed game, the width of the court is reduced to 17 ft. and the long service lines are dispensed with, the back boundary lines being used as the long service lines, and the lines dividing the half courts being produced to meet the back boundary lines. The net posts are placed either on the side boundary lines or at any distance not exceeding 2 ft. outside the said lines; thus in the four-handed game, the distance between the posts is from 20 to 24 ft., and in the two-handed fame, from 17 to 21 ft. _N.B._--With the exception of the net line, the dotted lines on the court apply only to the court for the two-handed game.

The Badminton hall should be not less than 18 ft. high. Along the net line is stretched a net 30 in. deep, from 17 to 24 ft. long according to the position of the posts, and edged on the top with white tape 3 in. wide. The top of the net should be 5 ft. from [v.03 p.0190] the ground at the centre and 5 ft. 1 in. at the posts. The shuttlec.o.c.k (or shuttle) has 16 feathers from 2 to 2 in. long, and weighs from 73 to 85 grains. The racket (which is of no specified size, shape or weight) is strung with strong fine gut and weighs as a rule about 6 oz.

The game is for 15 or, rarely, for 21 aces, except in ladies' singles, when it is for 11 aces; and a rubber is the best of three games. Games of 21 aces are played only and always in matches decided by a single game, and generally in handicap contests. The right to choose ends or to serve first in the first game of the rubber is decided by tossing. If the side which wins the toss chooses first service, the other side chooses ends, and vice versa; but the side which wins the toss may call upon the other side to make first choice. The sides change ends at the beginning of the second game, and again at the beginning of the third game, if a third game is necessary. In the third game the sides change ends when the side which is leading reaches 8 in a game of 15 aces, and 6 in a game of 11 aces, or, in handicap games, when the score of either side reaches half the number of aces required to win the game. In matches of one game (21 aces) the sides change ends when the side which is leading has scored 11 aces. The side winning a game serves first in the next game, and, in the four-handed game, either player on the side that has won the last game may take first service in the next game.

In a game of 15 aces, when the score is ”13 all” the side which first reaches 13 has the option of ”setting” the game to 5, and when the score is ”14 all” the side which first reaches 14 has the option of ”setting” the game to 3, _i.e._ the side which first scores 5 or 3 aces, according as the game has been ”set” at ”13 all” or ”14 all,” wins. In ladies' singles, when the score is ”9 all” the side first reaching 9 may ”set” the game to 5, and when the score is ”10 all” the side which first reaches 10 may ”set” the game to 3. In games of 21 aces, the game may be ”set” to 5 at ”19 all” and to 3 at ”20 all.” There is no ”setting” in handicap games.

In the four-handed game, the player who serves first stands in his right-hand half court and serves to the player who is standing in the opposite right-hand half court, the other players meanwhile standing anywhere on their side of the net. As soon as the shuttle is. .h.i.t by the server's racket, all the players may stand anywhere on their side of the net. If the player served to returns the shuttle, _i.e._ hits it into any part of his opponents' court before it touches the ground, it has to be returned by one of the ”in” (serving) side, and then by one of the ”out”

(non-serving) side, and so on, until a ”fault” is made or the shuttle ceases to be ”in play.”[1] If the ”in” side makes a ”fault,” the server loses his ”hand” (serve), and the player served to becomes the server; but no score accrues. If the ”out” side makes a ”fault,” the ”in” side scores an ace, and the players on the ”in” side change half courts, the server then serving from his left half court to the player in the opposite left half court, who has not yet been served to. Only the player served to may take the service, and only the ”in” side can score an ace. The first service in each innings is made from the right-hand half court. The side that starts a game has only one ”hand” in its first innings; in every subsequent innings each player on each side has a ”hand,” the partners serving consecutively. While a side remains ”in,” service is made alternately from each half court into the half court diagonally opposite, the change of half courts taking place whenever an ace is scored. If, in play, the shuttle strikes the net but still goes over, the stroke is good; but if this happens in service and the service is otherwise good, it is a ”let,” _i.e._ the stroke does not count, and the server must serve again, even if the shuttle has been struck by the player served to, in which case it is a.s.sumed that the shuttle would have fallen into the proper half court. It is a ”let,” too, if the server, in attempting to serve, misses the shuttle altogether. It is a good stroke, in service or in play, if the shuttle falls on a line, or, in play, if it is followed over the net with the striker's racket, or pa.s.ses outside either of the net posts and then drops inside any of the boundary lines of the opposite court. _Mutatis mutandis_, the above remarks apply to the two-handed game, the main points of difference being that, in the two-handed game, both sides change half courts after each ace is scored and the same player takes consecutive serves, whereas in the double game only the serving side changes half courts at an added ace and a player may not take two consecutive serves in the same game.

It is a ”fault” (a) if the service is overhand, _i.e._ if the shuttle when struck is higher than the server's waist; (b) if, in serving, the shuttle does not fall into the half court diagonally opposite that from which service is made; (c) if, before the shuttle is struck by the server, both feet of the server and of the player served to are not inside their respective half courts, a foot _on_ a line being deemed out of court; (d) if, in play, the shuttle falls outside the court, or, in service or play, pa.s.ses through or under the net, or hangs in the net, or touches the roof or side walls of the hall or the person or dress of any player; (e) if the shuttle ”in play” is. .h.i.t before it reaches the striker's side; (f) if, when the shuttle is ”in play,” a player touches the net or its supports with his racket, person or dress; (g) if the shuttle is struck twice successively by the same player, or if it is struck by a player and his partner successively, or if it is not distinctly hit, _i.e._ if it is merely caught on the racket and spooned over the net; (h) if a player wilfully obstructs his opponent.

For full information on the laws of the game the reader is referred to the _Laws of Badminton and the Rules of the Badminton a.s.sociation_, published annually (London). See also an article by S. M. Ma.s.sey in the _Badminton Magazine_ (February 1907), reprinted in a slightly revised form in the _Badminton Gazette_ (November 1907). Until October 1907 _Lawn Tennis and Badminton_ was the official organ of the Badminton a.s.sociation; in November 1907 the _Badminton Gazette_ became the official organ.

[1] The shuttle is ”in play” from the time it is struck by the server's racket until it touches the ground, or touches the net without going over, or until a ”fault” is made.

BADNUR, a town of British India, the headquarters of the district of Betul in the Central Provinces. It consists, besides the European houses, of two bazaars. Pop. (1901) 3766. There is a good _serai_ or inn for native travellers, and a _dak bungalow_ or resting-place for Europeans. Not far from Badnur is Kherla, the former residence of the Gond rajas, where there is an old fort, now in ruins, which used to be held by them.

BADRINATH, a village and celebrated temple in British India, in the Garhwal district of the United Provinces. It is situated on the right bank of the Vishnuganga, a tributary of the Alaknanda river, in the middle of a valley nearly 4 m. in length and 1 in breadth. The village is small, containing only twenty or thirty huts, in which reside the Brahmans and the attendants of the temple. This building, which is considered a place of high sanct.i.ty, is by no means equal to its great celebrity. It is about 40 or 50 ft. in height, built in the form of a cone, with a small cupola, on the top of which is a gilt ball and spire, and contains the shrine of Badrinath, dedicated to an incarnation of Vishnu. The princ.i.p.al idol is of black stone and is 3 ft. in height. Badrinath is a favourite resort of pilgrims from all parts of India. In ordinary years the number varies from 7000 to 10,000; but every twelfth year, when the festival of k.u.mbh-mela is celebrated, the concourse of persons is said to be 50,000. In addition to the gifts of votaries, the temple enjoys a further source of revenue from the rents of villages a.s.signed by former rajas. Successive temples have been shattered by avalanches, and the existing building is modern. It is situated among mountains rising 23,000 ft. above the level of the sea.

Elevation of the site of the temple, 10,294 ft.

BADULLA, the capital of the province of Uva, Ceylon, 54 m. S.E. of Kandy.

It is the seat of a government agent and district judge, besides minor courts. It was in Kandyan times the home of a prince who ruled Uva as a princ.i.p.ality. Badulla stands 2222 ft. above sea-level; the average annual rainfall is 79 in.; the average temperature, 73. The population of the town in 1901 was 5924; of the Badulla district, 186,674. There is a botanic garden; and the town, being almost encircled by a river--the Badullaeya--and overshadowed by the Naminacooly Kande range of mountains (highest peak 6680 ft.), is very [v.03 p.0191] picturesquely situated. The railway terminus at Bandarawella is 18 m. from Badulla. Tea is cultivated by the planters, and rice, fruit and vegetables by the natives in the district.

BAEDEKER, KARL (1801-1859), German publisher, was born at Essen on the 3rd of November 1801. His father had a printing establishment and book-shop there, and Karl followed the same business independently in Coblenz. Here he began to issue the first of the series of guide-books with which his name is a.s.sociated. They followed the model of the English series inst.i.tuted by John Murray, but developed in the course of years so as to cover the greater part of the civilized world, and later were issued in English and French as well as German. Baedeker's son Fritz carried on the business, which in 1872 was transferred to Leipzig.

BAEHR, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FELIX (1798-1872), German philologist, was born at Darmstadt on the 13th of June 1798. He studied at the university of Heidelberg where he was appointed professor of cla.s.sical philology in 1823, chief librarian in 1832, and on the retirement of G. F. Creuzer became director of the philological seminary. He died at Heidelberg on the 29th of November 1872. His earliest works were editions of Plutarch's _Alcibiades_ (1822), _Philopoemen, Flamininus, Pyrrhus_ (1826), the fragments of Ctesias (1824), and Herodotus (1830-1835, 1855-1862). But most important of all were his works on Roman literature and humanistic studies in the middle ages: _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur_ (4th ed., 1868-1870), and the supplementary volumes, _Die christlichen Dichter und Geschichtschreiber Roms_ (2nd ed., 1872), _Die christlich-romische Theologie_ (1837), _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur im karolingischen Zeitalter_ (1840).

BAEL FRUIT (_Aegle marmelos_). _Aegle_ is a genus of the botanical natural order Rutaceae, containing two species in tropical Asia and one in west tropical Africa. The plants are trees bearing strong spines, with alternate, compound leaves each with three leaflets and panicles of sweet-scented white flowers. _Aegle marmelos_, the bael- or bel-fruit tree (also known as Bengal quince), is found wild or cultivated throughout India. The tree is valued for its fruit, which is oblong to pyriform in shape, 2-5 in. in diameter, and has a grey or yellow rind and a sweet, thick orange-coloured pulp. The unripe fruit is cut up in slices, sun-dried and used as an astringent; the ripe fruit is described as sweet, aromatic and cooling. The wood is yellowish-white, and hard but not durable. The name _Aegle_ is from one of the Hesperides, in reference to the golden fruit; _marmelos_ is Portuguese for quince.

BAENA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova; 32 m. by road S.E. of the city of Cordova. Pop. (1900) 14,539. Baena is picturesquely situated near the river Marbella, on the slope of a hill crowned with a castle, which formerly belonged to the famous captain Gonzalo de Cordova.

Farming, horse-breeding, linen-weaving and the manufacture of olive-oil are the chief local industries. The nearest railway station is Luque (pop.

4972), 4 m. S.E. on the Jaen-Lucena line. The site of the Roman town (Baniana or Biniana) can still be traced, and various Roman antiquities have been disinterred. In 1292 the Moors under Mahommed II. of Granada vainly besieged Baena, which was held for Sancho IV. of Castile; and the five Moorish heads in its coat-of-arms commemorate the defence.

BAER, KARL ERNST VON (1792-1876), German biologist, was born at Piep, in Esthonia, on the 29th of February 1792. His father, a small landowner, sent him to school at Reval, which he left in his eighteenth year to study medicine at Dorpat University. The lectures of K. F. Burdach (1776-1847) suggested research in the wider field of life-history, and as at that time Germany offered more facilities for, and greater encouragement to, scientific work, von Baer went to Wurzburg, where J. I. J. Dollinger (1770-1841), father of the Catholic theologian, was professor of anatomy.

In teaching von Baer, Dollinger gave a direction to his studies which secured his future pre-eminence in the science of organic development. He collaborated with C. H. Pander (1794-1865) in researches on the evolution of the chick, the results of which were first published in Burdach's treatise on physiology. Continuing his investigations alone von Baer extended them to the evolution of organisms generally, and after a sojourn at Berlin he was invited by his old teacher Burdach, who had become professor of anatomy at Konigsberg, to join him as prosector and chief of the new zoological museum (1817). Von Baer's great discovery of the human ovum is the subject of his _Epistola de Ovo Mammalium et Hominis Genesi_ (Leipzig, 1827), and in the following year he published the first part of his _History of the Evolution of Animals_ (_Ueber die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere_), the second part following in 1837. In this work he demonstrated first, that the Graafian follicles in the ovary are not the actual eggs, but that they contain the spherical vesicle, which is the true ovum, a body about the one hundred and twentieth of an inch in diameter, wherein lie the properties transmitting the physical and mental characteristics of the parent or grandparent, or even of more remote ancestors. He next showed that in all vertebrates the primary stage of cleavage of the fertilized egg is followed by modification into leaf-like germ layers--skin, muscular, vascular and mucous--whence arise the several organs of the body by differentiation. He further discovered the gelatinous, cylindrical cord, known as the _chorda dorsalis_, which pa.s.ses along the body of the embryo of vertebrates, in the lower types of which it is limited to the entire inner skeleton, while in the higher the backbone and skull are developed round it. His ”law of corresponding stages” in the development of vertebrate embryos was exemplified in the fact recorded by him about certain specimens preserved in spirit which he had omitted to label. ”I am quite unable to say to what cla.s.s they belong. They may be lizards, or small birds, or very young mammalia, so complete is the similarity in the mode of formation of the head and trunk in these animals.