Volume 3, Part 1, Slice 1 Part 17 (1/2)

(G. A. B.)

AXUM, or AKSUM, an ancient city in the province of Tigre, Abyssinia (14 7'

52” N., 38 31' 10” E.; alt.i.tude, 7226 ft), 12 m. W. by S. of Adowa. Many European travellers have given descriptions of its monuments, though none of them has stayed there more than a few days. The name, written Aksm and Aksum in the Sabaean and Ethiopic inscriptions in the place, is found in cla.s.sical and early Christian writers in the forms of Auxome, Axumis, Axume, &c., the first mention being in the _Periplus Maris Erythraei_ (c.

A.D. 67), where it is said to be the seat of a kingdom, and the emporium for the ivory brought from the west. For the history of this kingdom see ETHIOPIA. J. T. Bent conjectured that the seat of government was transferred to Axum from Jeha, which he identified with the ancient Ava; and according to a doc.u.ment quoted by Achille Raffray the third Christian monarch transferred it from Axum to Lalibela. This second transference probably took place very much later; in spite of it, the custom of crowning Abyssinian kings at Axum continued, and King John was crowned there as late as 1871 or 1872. A. B. Wylde conjectures that it had become unsuitable for a royal seat by having acquired the status of a sacred city, and thus affording sanctuary to criminals and political offenders within the chief church and a considerable area round it, where there are various houses in which such persons can be lodged and entertained. This same sanct.i.ty makes it serve as a depository for goods of all sorts in times of danger, the chief church forming a sort of bank. The present town, containing less than a thousand houses, is supposed to occupy only a small portion of the area covered by the ancient city; it lies in a kloof or valley, but the old town must have been built on the western ridge rather than in the valley, as the traces of well-dressed stones are more numerous there than elsewhere.

Most of the antiquities of Axum still await excavation; those that have been described consist mainly of obelisks, of which about fifty are still standing, while many more are fallen. They form a consecutive series from rude unhewn stones to highly finished obelisks, of which the tallest still erect is 60 ft. in height, with 8 ft. 7 in. extreme front width; others that are fallen may have been taller. The highly finished monoliths are all representations of a many-storeyed castle, with an altar at the base of each. They appear to be connected with Semitic sun-wors.h.i.+p, and are a.s.signed by Bent to the same period as the temple at Baalbek, though some antiquarians would place them much earlier; the representation of a castle in a single stone seems to bear some relation to the idea worked out in the monolith churches of Lalibela described by Raffray. The fall of many of the monuments, according to Bent, was caused by the was.h.i.+ng away of the foundations by the stream called Mai Shum, and indeed the native tradition states that ”Gudert, queen of the Amhara,” when she visited Axum, destroyed the chief obelisk in this way by digging a trench from the river to its foundation. Others attribute it to religious fanaticism, or to the result of some barbaric invasion, such as Axum may have repeatedly endured before it was sacked by Mahommed Gran, sultan of Harrar, about 1535.

LITERATURE.--Cla.s.sical references to Axum are collected by Pietschmann in Pauly's _Realencyclopadie_ (2nd ed.); for the history as derived from the inscriptions see D. H. Muller, Appendix to J. T. Bent's _Sacred City of the Ethiopians_ (London, 1893), and E. Glaser, _Die Abessinier in Arabien_ (Munich, 1895). For the antiquities, Bruce's _Travels_ (1790); Salt, in the _Travels of Viscount Valentia_ (London, 1809), iii. 87-97 and 178-200; J. T. Bent, _l.c._; and A. B. Wylde, _Modern Abyssinia_ (London, 1901). For geology, Schimper, in the _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde_ (Berlin, 1869).

(D. S. M.*)

AY, AYE. The word ”aye,” meaning _always_ (and p.r.o.nounced as in ”day”; connected with Gr. [Greek: aei], always, and Lat. _aevum_, an age), is often spelt ”ay,” and the _New English Dictionary_ prefers this. ”Aye,”

meaning Yes (and p.r.o.nounced almost like the word ”eye”), though sometimes identified with ”yea,” is probably the same word etymologically, though differentiated by usage; the form ”ay” for this is also common, but inconvenient; at one time it was spelt simply _I_ (_e.g._ in Michael Drayton's _Idea_, 57; published in 1593).

AYACUCHO, a city and department of central Peru, formerly known as Guamanga or Huamanga, renamed from the small plain of Ayacucho (_Quichua_, ”corner of death”). This lies near the village of Quinua, in an elevated valley 11,600 ft. above sea-level, where a decisive battle was fought between General Sucre and the Spanish viceroy La Serna in 1824, which resulted in the defeat of the latter and the independence of Peru. The city of Ayacucho, capital of the department of that name [v.03 p.0071] and of the province of Guamanga, is situated on an elevated plateau, 8911 ft. above sea-level, between the western and central Cordilleras, and on the main road between Lima and Cuzco, 394 m. from the former by way of Jauja. Pop.

(1896) 20,000. It has an agreeable, temperate climate, is regularly built, and has considerable commercial importance. It is the seat of a bishopric and of a superior court of justice. It is distinguished for the number of its churches and conventual establishments, although the latter have been closed. The city was founded by Pizarro in 1539 and was known as Guamanga down to 1825. It has been the scene of many notable events in the history of Peru.

The department of AYACUCHO extends across the great plateau of central Peru, between the departments of Huancavelica and Apurimac, with Cuzco on the E. and Ica on the W. Area, 18,185 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 302,469. It is divided into six provinces, and covers a broken, mountainous region, partially barren in its higher elevations but traversed by deep, warm, fertile valleys. It formed a part of the original home of the Incas and once sustained a large population. It produces Indian corn and other cereals and potatoes in the colder regions, and tropical fruits, sweet potatoes and mandioca (_Jatropha manihot_, L.) in the low tropical valleys.

It is also an important mining region, having a large number of silver mines in operation. Its name was changed from Guamanga to Ayacucho by a decree of 1825.

AYAH, a Spanish word (_aya_) for children's nurse or maid, introduced by the Portuguese into India and adopted by the English to denote their native nurses.

AYALA, DON PEDRO LOPEZ DE (1332-1407), Spanish statesman, historian and poet, was born at Vittoria in 1332. He first came into prominence at the court of Peter the Cruel, whose cause he finally deserted; he greatly distinguished himself in subsequent campaigns, during which he was twice made prisoner, by the Black Prince at Najera (1367) and by the Portuguese at Aljubarrota (1385). A favourite of Henry II. and John I. of Castile, he was made grand chancellor of the realm by Henry III. in 1398. A brave officer and an able diplomat, Ayala was one of the most cultivated Spaniards of his time, at once historian, translator and poet. Of his many works the most important are his chronicles of the four kings of Castile during whose reigns he lived; they give a generally accurate account of scenes and events, most of which he had witnessed; he also wrote a long satirical and didactic poem, interesting as a picture of his personal experiences and of contemporary morality. The first part of his chronicle, covering only the reign of Peter the Cruel, was printed at Seville in 1495; the first complete edition was printed in 1779-1780 in the collection of _Cronicas Espanolas_, under the auspices of the Spanish Royal Academy of History. Ayala died at Calahorra in 1407.

See Rafael Floranes, ”Vida literaria de Pedro Lopez de Ayala,” in the _Doc.u.mentos ineditos para la historia de Espana_, vols. xix. and xx.; F. W.

Schirrmacher, ”uber die Glaubwurdigkeit der Chronik Ayalas,” in _Geschichte von Spanien_ (Berlin, 1902), vol. v. pp. 510-532.

AYALA Y HERRERA, ADELARDO LOPEZ DE (1828-1879), Spanish writer and politician, was born at Guadalca.n.a.l on the 1st of May 1828, and at a very early age began writing for the theatre of his native town. The t.i.tles of these juvenile performances, which were played by amateurs, were _Salga por donde saliere_, _Me voy a Sevilla_ and _La Corona y el Punal._ As travelling companies never visited Guadalca.n.a.l, and as ladies took no part in the representations, these three plays were written for men only. Ayala persuaded his sister to appear as the heroine of his comedy, _La primera Dama_, and the innovation, if it scandalized some of his townsmen, permitted him to develop his talent more freely. In his twentieth year he matriculated at the university of Seville, but his career as a student was undistinguished. In Seville he made acquaintance with Garcia Gutierrez, who is reported to have encouraged his dramatic ambitions and to have given him the benefit of his own experience as a playwright. Early in 1850 Ayala removed his name from the university books, and settled in Madrid with the purpose of becoming a professional dramatist. Though he had no friends and no influence, he speedily found an opening. A four-act play in verse, _Un Hombre de Estado_, was accepted by the managers of the Teatro Espanol, was given on the 25th of January 1851, and proved a remarkable success.

Henceforward Ayala's position and popularity were secure. Within a twelvemonth he became more widely known by his _Castigo y Perdon_, and by a more humorous effort, _Los dos Guzmanes_; and shortly afterwards he was appointed by the _Moderado_ government to a post in the home office, which he lost in 1854 on the accession to power of the Liberal party. In 1854 he produced _Rioja_, perhaps the most admired and the most admirable of all his works, and from 1854 to 1856 he took an active part in the political campaign carried on in the journal _El Padre Cobos_. A _zarzuela_, ent.i.tled _Guerta a muerte_, for which Emilio Arrieta composed the music, belongs to 1855, and to the same collaboration is due _El Agente de Matrimonios_. At about this date Ayala pa.s.sed over from the Moderates to the Progressives, and this political manoeuvre had its effect upon the fate of his plays. The performances of _Los Comuneros_ were attended by members of the different parties; the utterances of the different characters were taken to represent the author's personal opinions, and every speech which could be brought into connexion with current politics was applauded by one half of the house and derided by the other half. A _zarzuela_, named _El Conde de Castralla_, was given amid much uproar on the 20th of February 1856, and, as the piece seemed likely to cause serious disorder in the theatre, it was suppressed by the government after the third performance. Ayala's rupture with the Moderates was now complete, and in 1857, through the interest of O'Donnell, he was elected as Liberal deputy for Badajoz. His political changes are difficult to follow, or to explain, and they have been unsparingly censured. So far as can be judged, Ayala had no strong political views, and drifted with the current of the moment. He took part in the revolution of 1868, wrote the ”Manifesto of Cadiz,” took office as colonial minister, favoured the candidature of the duc de Montpensier, resigned in 1871, returned to his early Conservative principles, and was a member of Alfonso XII.'s first cabinet. Meanwhile, however divided in opinion as to his political conduct, his countrymen were practically unanimous in admiring his dramatic work; and his reputation, if it gained little by _El Nuevo Don Juan_, was greatly increased by _El Tanto por Ciento_ and _El Tejado de Vidrio_. His last play, _Consuelo_, was given on the 30th of March 1878.

Ayala was nominated to the post of president of congress shortly before his death, which occurred unexpectedly on the 30th of January 1879. The best of his lyrical work, excellent for finish and intense sincerity, is his _Epistola_ to Emilio Arrieta, and had he chosen to dedicate himself to lyric poetry, he might possibly have ranked with the best of Spain's modern singers; as it is, he is a very considerable poet who affects the dramatic form. In his later writings he deals with modern society, its vices, ideals and perils; yet in many essentials he is a manifest disciple of Calderon.

He has the familiar Calderonian limitations; the subst.i.tution of types for characters, of eloquence for vital dialogue. Nor can he equal the sublime lyrism of his model; but he is little inferior in poetic conception, in dignified idealization, and in picturesque imagery. And it may be fairly claimed for him that in _El Tejado de Vidrio_ and _El Tanto par Ciento_ he displays a very exceptional combination of satiric intention with romantic inspiration. By these plays and by _Rioja_ and _Consuelo_ he is ent.i.tled to be judged. They will at least ensure for him an honourable place in the history of the modern Spanish theatre.

A complete edition of his dramatic works, edited by his friend and rival Tamayo y Baus, has been published in seven volumes (Madrid, 1881-1885).

(J. F.-K.)

AYE-AYE, a word of uncertain signification (perhaps only an exclamation), but universally accepted as the designation of the most remarkable and aberrant of all the Malagasy lemurs (see PRIMATES). The aye-aye, _Chiromys_ (or _Daubentonia_) _madagascariensis_, is an animal with a superficial resemblance to a long-haired and dusky-coloured cat with unusually large eyes. It has a broad rounded head, short face, large naked eyes, large hands, and long thin fingers with pointed claws, of which the [v.03 p.0072]

third is remarkable for its extreme slenderness. The foot resembles that of the other lemurs in its large opposable great toe with a flat nail; but all the other toes have pointed compressed claws. Tail long and bushy. General colour dark brown, the outer fur being long and rather loose, with a woolly under-coat. Teats two, inguinal in position. The aye-aye was discovered by Pierre Sonnerat in 1780, the specimen brought to Paris by that traveller being the only one known until 1860. Since then many others have been obtained, and one lived for several years in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London. Like so many lemurs, it is completely nocturnal in its habits, living either alone or in pairs, chiefly in the bamboo forests.

Observations upon captive specimens have led to the conclusion that it feeds princ.i.p.ally on juices, especially of the sugar-cane, which it obtains by tearing open the hard woody circ.u.mference of the stalk with its strong incisor teeth; but it is said also to devour certain species of wood-boring caterpillars, which it obtains by first cutting down with its teeth upon their burrows, and then picking them out of their retreat with the claw of its attenuated middle finger. It constructs large ball-like nests of dried leaves, lodged in a fork of the branches of a large tree, and with the opening on one side.

Till recently the aye-aye was regarded as representing a family by itself--the _Chiromyidae_; but the discovery that it resembles the other lemurs of Madagascar in the structure of the inner ear, and thus differs from all other members of the group, has led to the conclusion that it is best cla.s.sed as a subfamily (_Chiromyinae_) of the _Lemuridae_.

(R. L.*)

AYLESBURY, a market-town in the Aylesbury parliamentary division of Buckinghams.h.i.+re, England, 38 m. N.W. by W. of London; served by the Great Central, Metropolitan and Great Western railways (which use a common station) and by a branch of the London & North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 9243. It has connexion by a branch with the Grand Junction ca.n.a.l. It lies on a slight eminence in a fertile tract called the Vale of Aylesbury, which extends northward from the foot of the Chiltern Hills. Its streets are mostly narrow and irregular, but picturesque. The church of St Mary, a large cruciform building, is primarily Early English, but has numerous additions of later dates. The font is transitional Norman, a good example; and a small pre-Norman crypt remains beneath part of the church. There are some Decorated canopied tombs, and the chancel stalls are of the 15th century. The central tower is surmounted by an ornate clock-turret dating from the second half of the 17th century. The county-hall and town-hall, overlooking a broad market-place, are the princ.i.p.al public buildings. The grammar school was founded in 1611.

Aylesbury is the a.s.size town for the county, though Buckingham is the county town. There is a large agricultural trade, the locality being especially noted for the rearing of ducks; straw-plaiting and the manufacture of condensed milk are carried on, and there are printing works.

The Jacobean mansion of Hartwell in the neighbourhood of Aylesbury was the residence of the French king Louis XVIII. during his exile (1810-1814).