Volume 2, Slice 2 Part 25 (1/2)

ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684), Spanish bibliographer, was born at Seville on the 31st of July 1617. After taking his degree at Salamanca (1636-1639), he returned to his native city, wrote his treatise _De Exilio_ (which was not printed till 1659), and began his monumental register of Spanish writers. The fame of his learning reached Philip IV., who conferred the order of Santiago on him in 1645, and sent him as general agent to Rome in 1654. Returning to Spain in 1679, Antonio died at Madrid in the spring of 1684. His _Bibliotheca Hispana nova_, dealing with the works of Spanish authors who flourished after 1500, appeared at Rome in 1672; the _Bibliotheca Hispana vetus_, a literary history of Spain from the time of Augustus to the end of the 15th century, was revised by Manuel Marti, and published by Antonio's friend, Cardinal Jose Saenz de Aguirre at Rome in 1696. A fine edition of both parts, with additional matter found in Antonio's ma.n.u.scripts, and with supplementary notes by Francisco Perez Bayer, was issued at Madrid in 1787-1788. This great work, incomparably superior to any previous bibliography, is still unsuperseded and indispensable.

Of Antonio's miscellaneous writings the most important is the posthumous _Censura de historias fabulosas_ (Valencia, 1742), in which erudition is combined with critical insight. His _Bibliotheca Hispana rabinica_ has not been printed; the ma.n.u.script is in the national library at Madrid.

ANTONIO DE LEBRIJA [ANTONIUS NEBRISSENSIS], (1444-1522), Spanish scholar, was born at Lebrija in the province of Andalusia. After studying at Salamanca he resided for ten years in Italy, and completed his education at Bologna University. On his return to Spain (1473), he devoted himself to the advancement of cla.s.sical learning amongst his countrymen. After holding the professors.h.i.+p of poetry and grammar at Salamanca, he was transferred to the university of Alcala de Henares, where he lectured until his death in 1522, at the age of seventy-eight.

His services to the cause of cla.s.sical literature in Spain have been compared with those rendered by Valla, Erasmus and Budaeus to Italy, Holland and France. He produced a large number of works on a variety of subjects, including a Latin and Spanish dictionary, commentaries on Sedulius and Persius, and a Compendium of Rhetoric, based on Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian. His most ambitious work was his chronicle ent.i.tled _Rerum in Hispania Gestarum Decades_ (published in 1545 by his son as an original work by his father), which twenty years later was found to be merely a Latin translation of the Spanish chronicle of Pulgar, which was published at Saragossa in 1567. De Lebrija also took part in the production of the Complutense polyglot Bible published under the patronage of Cardinal Jimenes.

Antonio, _Bibliotheca Hispana Nova_, i. 132 (1888); Prescott, _History of Ferdinand and Isabella_, i. 410 (note); MacCrie, _The Reformation in Spain in the Sixteenth Century_ (1829).

ANTONIUS, the name of a large number of prominent citizens of ancient Rome, of the gens Antonia. Antonius the triumvir claimed that his family was descended from Anton, son of Heracles. Of the Antonii the following are important.

1. MARCUS ANTONIUS (143-87 B.C.), one of the most distinguished Roman orators of his time, was quaestor in 113, and praetor in 102 with proconsular powers, the province of Cilicia being a.s.signed to him. Here he was so successful against the pirates that a naval triumph was awarded him. He was consul in 99, censor 97, and held a command in the Marsic War in 90. An adherent of Sulla, he was put to death by Marius and Cinna when they obtained possession of Rome (87). Antonius's reputation for eloquence rests on the authority of Cicero, none of his orations being extant. He is one of the chief speakers in Cicero's _De Oratore_.

Velleius Paterculus ii. 22; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 72; Dio Ca.s.sius xlv. 47; Plutarch, _Marius_, 44; Cicero, _Orator_, 5, _Brutus_, 37; Quintilian, _Inst.i.t._ iii. 1, 19; O. Enderlein, _De M. Antonio oratore_ (Leipzig, 1882).

2. MARCUS ANTONIUS, nicknamed CRETICUS in derision, elder son of Marcus Antonius, the ”orator,” and father of the triumvir. He was praetor in 74 B.C., and received an extraordinary command (similar to that bestowed upon Pompey by the Gabinian law) to clear the sea of pirates, and thereby a.s.sist the operations against Mithradates VI. He failed in the task, and made himself unpopular by plundering the provinces (Sall.u.s.t, _Hist._ iii., fragments ed. B. Maurenbrecher, p. 108; Velleius Paterculus ii. 31; Cicero, _In Verrem_, iii. 91). He attacked the Cretans, who had made an alliance with the pirates, but was totally defeated, most of his s.h.i.+ps being sunk. Diodorus Siculus (xl. 1) states that he only saved himself by a disgraceful treaty. He died soon afterwards (72-71) in Crete. All authorities are agreed as to his avarice and incompetence.

3. GAIUS ANTONIUS, nicknamed HYBRIDA from his half-savage disposition (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 213), second son of Marcus Antonius, the ”orator,” and uncle of the triumvir. He was one of Sulla's lieutenants in the Mithradatic War, and, after Sulla's return, remained in Greece to plunder with a force of cavalry. In 76 he was tried for his malpractices, but escaped punishment; six years later he was removed from the senate by the censors, but soon afterwards reinstated. In spite of his bad reputation, he was elected tribune in 71, praetor in 66, and consul with Cicero in 63. He secretly supported Catiline, but Cicero won him over by promising him the rich province of Macedonia. On the outbreak of the Catilinarian conspiracy, Antonius was obliged to lead an army into Etruria, but handed over the command on the day of battle to Marcus Petreius on the ground of ill-health. He then went to Macedonia, where he made himself so detested by his oppression and extortions that he left the province, and was accused in Rome (59) both of having taken part in the conspiracy and of extortion in his province. It was said that Cicero had agreed with Antonius to share his plunder. Cicero's defence of Antonius two years before in view of a proposal for his recall, and also on the occasion of his trial, increased the suspicion.

In spite of Cicero's eloquence, Antonius was condemned, and went into exile at Cephallenia. He seems to have been recalled by Caesar, since he was present at a meeting of the senate in 44, and was censor in 42.

Cicero, _In Cat._ iii. 6, _pro Flacco_, 38; Plutarch, _Cicero_, 12; Dio Ca.s.sius x.x.xvii. 39, 40; x.x.xviii. 10. On his trial see article in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_.

4. MARCUS ANTONIUS, commonly called MARK ANTONY, the Triumvir, grandson of Antonius the ”orator” and son of Antonius Creticus, related on his mother's side to Julius Caesar, was born about 83 B.C. Under the influence of his stepfather, Cornelius Lentulus Sura, he spent a profligate youth. For a time he co-operated with P. Clodius Pulcher, probably out of hostility to Cicero, who had caused Lentulus Sura to be put to death as a Catilinarian; the connexion was severed by a disagreement arising from his relations with Clodius's wife, Fulvia. In 58 he fled to Greece to escape his creditors. After a short time spent in attendance on the philosophers at Athens, he was summoned by Aulus Gabinius, governor of Syria, to take part in the campaigns against Aristobulus in Palestine, and in support of Ptolemy Auletes in Egypt. In 54 he was with Caesar in Gaul. Raised by Caesar's influence to the offices of quaestor, augur, and tribune of the plebs, he supported the cause of his patron with great energy, and was expelled from the senate-house when the Civil War broke out. Deputy-governor of Italy during Caesar's absence in Spain (49), second in command in the decisive battle of Pharsalus (48), and again deputy-governor of Italy while Caesar was in Africa (47), Antony was second only to the dictator, and seized the opportunity of indulging in the most extravagant excesses, depicted by Cicero in the _Philippics_. In 46 he seems to have taken offence because Caesar insisted on payment for the property of Pompey which Antony professedly had purchased, but had in fact simply appropriated. The estrangement was not of long continuance; for we find Antony meeting the dictator at Narbo the following year, and rejecting the suggestion of Trebonius that he should join in the conspiracy that was already on foot. In 44 he was consul with Caesar, and seconded his ambition by the famous offer of the crown at the festival of Lupercalia (February 15). After the murder of Caesar on the 15th of March, Antony conceived the idea of making himself sole ruler. At first he seemed disposed to treat the conspirators leniently, but at the same time he so roused the people against them by the publication of Caesar's will and by his eloquent funeral oration, that they were obliged to leave the city. He surrounded himself with a bodyguard of Caesar's veterans, and forced the senate to transfer to him the province of Cisalpine Gaul, which was then administered by Decimus Junius Brutus, one of the conspirators. Brutus refused to surrender the province, and Antony set out to attack him in October 44, But at this time Octavian, whom Caesar had adopted as his son, arrived from Illyria, and claimed the inheritance of his ”father.” Octavian obtained the support of the senate and of Cicero; and the veteran troops of the dictator flocked to his standard. Antony was denounced as a public enemy, and Octavian was entrusted with the command of the war against him. Antony was defeated at Mutina (43) where he was besieging Brutus. The consuls Aulus Hirtius and C. Vibius Pansa, however, fell in the battle, and the senate became suspicious of Octavian, who, irritated at the refusal of a triumph and the appointment of Brutus to the command over his head, entered Rome at the head of his troops, and forced the senate to bestow the consuls.h.i.+p upon him (August 19th). Meanwhile, Antony escaped to Cisalpine Gaul, effected a junction with Lepidus and marched towards Rome with a large force of infantry and cavalry. Octavian betrayed his party, and came to terms with Antony and Lepidus. The three leaders met at Bononia and adopted the t.i.tle of _Triumviri reipublicae const.i.tuendae_ as joint rulers. Gaul was to belong to Antony, Spain to Lepidus, and Africa, Sardinia and Sicily to Octavian. The arrangement was to last for five years. A reign of terror followed; proscriptions, confiscations, and executions became general; some of the n.o.blest citizens were put to death, and Cicero fell a victim to Antony's revenge. In the following year (42) Antony and Octavian proceeded against the conspirators Ca.s.sius and Brutus, and by the two battles of Philippi annihilated the senatorial and republican parties. Antony proceeded to Greece, and thence to Asia Minor, to procure money for his veterans and complete the subjugation of the eastern provinces. On his pa.s.sage through Cilicia in 41 he fell a victim to the charms of Cleopatra, in whose company he spent the winter at Alexandria. At length he was aroused by the Parthian invasion of Syria and the report of an outbreak between Fulvia his wife and Lucius his brother on the one hand and Octavian on the other. On arriving in Italy he found that Octavian was already victorious; on the death of Fulvia, a reconciliation was effected between the triumvirs, and cemented by the marriage of Antony with Octavia, the sister of his colleague. A new division of the Roman world was made at Brundusium, Lepidus receiving Africa, Octavian the west, and Antony the east.

Returning to his province Antony made several attempts to subdue the Parthians, without any decided success. In 39 he visited Athens, where he behaved in a most extravagant manner, a.s.suming the attributes of the G.o.d Dionysus. In 37 he crossed over to Italy, and renewed the triumvirate for five years at a meeting with Octavian. Returning to Syria, he resumed relations with Cleopatra. His treatment of Octavia, her brother's desire to get rid of him, and the manner in which he disposed of kingdoms and provinces in favour of Cleopatra alienated his supporters. In 32 the senate deprived him of his powers and declared war against Cleopatra. After two years spent in preparations, Antony was defeated at the battle of Actium (2nd September 31). Once more he sought refuge in the society of Cleopatra, who had escaped with sixty s.h.i.+ps to Egypt. He was pursued by his enemies and his troops abandoned him.

Thereupon he committed suicide in the mistaken belief that Cleopatra had already done so (30 B.C.). Antony had been married in succession to Fadia, Antonia, Fulvia and Octavia, and left behind him a number of children.

See ROME, _History_, II. ”The Republic” (_ad fin._); Caesar, _De Bella Gallico, De Bella Civili_; Plutarch, Lives of _Antony, Brutus, Cicero, Caesar_; Cicero, _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser) and _Philippics_; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i.-v.; Dio Ca.s.sius xli.-liii. In addition to the standard histories, see V. Gardthausen, _Augustus und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1891-1904); W. Drumann, _Geschichte Roms_ (2nd ed. P.

Groebe, 1899), i. pp. 46-384; article by Groebe in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_; and a short but vivid sketch by de Quincey in his _Essay on the Caesars_.

5. LUCIUS ANTONIUS, youngest son of Marcus Antonius Creticus, and brother of the triumvir. In 44, as tribune of the people, he brought forward a law authorizing Caesar to nominate the chief magistrates during his absence from Rome. After the murder of Caesar, he supported his brother Marcus. He proposed an agrarian law in favour of the people and Caesar's veterans, and took part in the operations at Mutina (43).

In 41 he was consul, and had a dispute with Octavian, which led to the so-called Perusian War, in which he was supported by Fulvia (Mark Antony's wife), who was anxious to recall her husband from Cleopatra's court. Later, observing the bitter feelings that had been evoked by the distribution of land among the veterans of Caesar, Antonius and Fulvia changed their att.i.tude, and stood forward as the defenders of those who had suffered from its operation. Antonius marched on Rome, drove out Lepidus, and promised the people that the triumvirate should be abolished. On the approach of Octavian, he retired to Perusia in Etruria, where he was besieged by three armies, and compelled to surrender (winter of 41). His life was spared, and he was sent by Octavian to Spain as governor. Nothing is known of the circ.u.mstances or date of his death. Cicero, in his _Philippics_, actuated in great measure by personal animosity, gives a highly unfavourable view of his character.

Appian, _Bellum Civile_, v. 14 ff.; Dio Ca.s.sius xlviii. 5-14.

6. GAIUS ANTONIUS, second son of Marcus Antonius Creticus, and brother of the triumvir. In 49 he was legate of Caesar and, with P. Cornelius Dolabella, was entrusted with the defence of Illyric.u.m against the Pompeians. Dolabella's fleet was destroyed; Antonius was shut up in the island of Curicta and forced to surrender. In 44 he was city praetor, his brothers Marcus and Lucius being consul and tribune respectively in the same year. Gaius was appointed to the province of Macedonia, but on his way thither fell into the hands of M. Junius Brutus on the coast of Illyria. Brutus at first treated him generously, but ultimately put him to death (42).

Plutarch, _Brutus_, 28; Dio Ca.s.sius xlvii. 21-24. On the whole family, see the articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, i. pt. 2 (1894).

ANTONOMASIA, in rhetoric, the Greek term for a subst.i.tution of any epithet or phrase for a proper name; as ”Pelides,” or ”the son of Peleus,” for Achilles; ”the Stagirite” for Aristotle; ”the author of _Paradise Lost_” for Milton; ”the little corporal” for Napoleon I.; ”Macedonia's madman” for Alexander the Great, &c. &c. The opposite subst.i.tution of a proper name for some generic term is also sometimes called antonomasia; as ”a Cicero” for an orator.

ANTRAIGUES, EMMANUEL HENRI LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE LAUNAY, COMTE D' (c.

1755-1812), French publicist and political adventurer, was a nephew of Francois Emmanuel de Saint-Priest (1735-1821), one of the last ministers of Louis XVI. He was a cavalry captain, but, having little taste for the army, left it and travelled extensively, especially in the East. On his return to Paris, he sought the society of philosophers and artists, visited Voltaire at Ferney for three months, but was more attracted by J.J. Rousseau, with whom he became somewhat intimate. He published a _Memoire sur les etats-generaux_, supported the Revolution enthusiastically when it broke out, was elected deputy, and took the oath to the const.i.tution; but he suddenly changed his mind completely, became a defender of the monarchy and emigrated in 1790. He was the secret agent of the comte de Provence (Louis XVIII.) at different courts of Europe, and at the same time received money from the courts he visited. He published a number of pamphlets, _Des monstres ravagent partout_, _Point d'accommodement_, &c. At Venice, where he was attache to the Russian legation, he was arrested in 1797, but escaped to Russia.