Part 39 (1/2)

As we shall now learn, it was a time of settled government and of internal tranquillity. Except for a brief period of anarchy at the close of the reign of Nero, it was also a time of regular succession to the throne.

Nearly all the emperors were vigorous and capable rulers. The peace and prosperity which they gave to the Roman world amply justify--if justification be needed--the change from republic to empire.

THE NEW RULER

Few persons have set their stamp more indelibly on the pages of history than Octavian, whom we may now call by his more familiar name _Augustus_ (”Majestic”). Augustus was no military genius to dazzle the world with his achievements. He was a cool and pa.s.sionless statesman who took advantage of a memorable opportunity to remake the Roman state, and who succeeded in the attempt. Absolute power, which destroys weaker men, with Augustus brought out the n.o.bler elements of character. From the successful leader of a party he became the wise and impartial ruler of an empire.

THE NEW GOVERNMENT

Augustus had almost unlimited power. His position was that of a king, as supreme as Julius Caesar had ever been. Better, however, than Julius Caesar, Augustus realized that an undisguised autocracy would only alienate public opinion and invite fresh plots and rebellions, Augustus intended to be the real master, but he would also be careful to conceal his authority under republican forms. The emperor was neither king, dictator, nor triumvir. He called himself a republican magistrate-- _Princeps_ [2]--the ”First Citizen” of the state.

POWERS ENJOYED BY AUGUSTUS

Augustus gave up the externals, only to keep the essentials, of royalty.

He held the proconsular authority, which extended over the frontier provinces and their legions. He held the tribunician authority, which made his person sacred. As perpetual tribune he could preside over the popular a.s.semblies, manage the Senate and change its members.h.i.+p at pleasure, and veto the acts of almost any magistrate. In the provinces and at home in the capital city the emperor was supreme.

THE EMPIRE UNDER AUGUSTUS

Augustus ruled a vast realm. In it all the dreams of world dominion which Alexander had cherished were more than realized. The empire included nearly the entire circle of the Mediterranean lands. On the west and south it found natural barriers in the Atlantic Ocean and the African desert. On the east the Euphrates River had formed, since the defeat of Cra.s.sus, [3]

the dividing line between Rome and Parthia. The northern frontier, beyond which lay the Germanic barbarians, required, however, additional conquests for its protection.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Map, THE EXPANSION OF ROMAN DOMINIONS 31 B.C.-180 A.D.]

THE DANUBE BOUNDARY

The Danube River made an admirable boundary for much of the Roman territory between the Black Sea and the Rhine. Augustus annexed the district south of the lower course of this river and formed it into the province of Moesia (modern Serbia and Bulgaria). The line of the upper Danube was later secured by the creation of three new provinces on the northern slopes of the Alps. [4] Henceforth the Balkan peninsula and Italy on the northeast, where the Alpine pa.s.ses are low and comparatively easy, were s.h.i.+elded from attack.

THE RHINE BOUNDARY

After the conquests of Julius Caesar in Gaul the Rhine had become the frontier between that country and Germany. Augustus repeatedly sent the legions into western Germany on punitive expeditions to strike terror into its warlike tribes and to inspire respect for Roman power. It is doubtful, however, whether he ever intended to conquer Germany and to convert it into another province. His failure to do so meant that the Germans were not to be Romanized as were their neighbors, the Celts of Gaul. The Rhine continued to be the dividing-line between Roman civilization and Germanic barbarism.

THE AUGUSTAN AGE

The clash of arms on the distant frontiers scarcely disturbed the serenity of the Roman world. Within the boundaries of the empire the Augustan Age was an age of peace and prosperity. The emperor, with unwearied devotion, turned to the task of ruling wisely and well his vast dominions. He followed the example of Julius Caesar in his insistence on just government of the provincials. [5] In Italy he put down brigandage, repaired the public highways, and planted many colonies in unsettled districts. In Rome he established a regular police service, organized the supply of grain and water, and continued, on a larger scale than ever, the public games. So many were his buildings in the capital city that he could boast he had ”found Rome of brick and left it of marble.” [6] Augustus was also very successful as a religious reformer. He restored numerous temples that had fallen into decay, revived the ancient sacrifices, and celebrated with pomp and majesty the festivals that had been neglected. These reforms gave new vigor to the Roman state religion.

[Ill.u.s.tration: MONUMENTUM ANCYRANUM An inscription on the walls of a ruined temple at Ancyra (modern Angora) in Asia Minor. It is a copy of the record descriptive of the reign of Augustus which that emperor in his will decreed to be inscribed on bronze tablets and placed before his mausoleum at Rome.]

DEIFICATION OF AUGUSTUS

Even during the lifetime of Augustus wors.h.i.+p had been offered to him by the provincials. After his death the Senate gave him divine honors and enrolled his name among the G.o.ds. Temples rose in every province to the deified Augustus, and altars smoked with sacrifices to him. Emperor wors.h.i.+p spread rapidly over the ancient world and helped to unite all cla.s.ses in allegiance to the new government. It provided a universal religion for a universal empire. Yet just at the time when this new cult was taking root, and in the midst of the happy reign of Augustus, there was born in Bethlehem of Judea the Christ whose religion was to overcome the wors.h.i.+p of the emperors and with it all other faiths of pagan antiquity. [7]

67. THE SUCCESSORS OF AUGUSTUS, 14-96 A.D.

JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN CAESARS, 14-68 A.D.

For more than half a century following the death of Augustus his place was filled by emperors who, either by descent or adoption, claimed kins.h.i.+p with himself and the mighty Julius. They are known as the Julian and Claudian Caesars. [8] Though none of these four princes had the political ability of Augustus, two of them (Tiberius and Claudius) were excellent rulers, who ably maintained the standards set by that great emperor. The other two (Caligula and Nero) were vicious tyrants, the recital of whose follies and crimes occupies much s.p.a.ce in the works of ancient historians.

Their doings and misdoings fortunately exerted little influence outside the circle of the imperial court and the capital city. Rome itself might be disturbed by conspiracy and bloodshed, but Italy and the provinces kept their prosperity.

CONQUEST OF BRITAIN BEGUN, 43 A.D.