Part 4 (1/2)
The different conduct of the two parties, with regard to foreign politics, is also a proof to the same purpose. _Holland_ has always been most favoured by one, and _France_ by the other. In short, the proofs of this kind seem so palpable and evident, that it is almost needless to collect them.
It is however remarkable, that though the principles of _Whig_ and _Tory_ be both of them of a compound nature, yet the ingredients which predominated in both were not correspondent to each other. A _Tory_ loved monarchy, and bore an affection to the family of _Stuart_; but the latter affection was the predominant inclination of the party. A _Whig_ loved liberty, and was a friend to the settlement in the Protestant line; but the love of liberty was professedly his predominant inclination. The Tories have frequently acted as republicans, where either policy or revenge has engaged them to that conduct; and there was none of the party who, upon the supposition that they were to be disappointed in their views with regard to the succession, would not have desired to impose the strictest limitations on the crown, and to bring our form of government as near republican as possible, in order to depress the family, that, according to their apprehension, succeeded without any just t.i.tle. The Whigs, it is true, have also taken steps dangerous to liberty, under pretext of securing the succession and settlement of the crown according to their views; but, as the body of the party had no pa.s.sion for that succession, otherwise than as the means of securing liberty, they have been betrayed into these steps by ignorance or frailty, or the interest of their leaders. The succession of the crown was, therefore, the chief point with the Tories; the security of our liberties with the Whigs.
It is difficult to penetrate into the thoughts and sentiments of any particular man; but it is almost impossible to distinguish those of a whole party, where it often happens that no two persons agree precisely in the same way of thinking. Yet I will venture to affirm, that it was not so much principle, or an opinion of indefeasible right, that attached the Tories to the ancient family, as affection, or a certain love and esteem for their persons. The same cause divided England formerly betwixt the houses of York and Lancaster, and Scotland betwixt the families of Bruce and Baliol, in an age when political disputes were but little in fas.h.i.+on, and when political principles must of course have had but little influence on mankind. The doctrine of pa.s.sive obedience is so absurd in itself, and so opposite to our liberties, that it seems to have been chiefly left to pulpit declaimers, and to their deluded followers among the _mob_ Men of better sense were guided by _affection_, and as to the leaders of this party, it is probable that interest was their sole motive, and that they acted more contrary to their private sentiments than the leaders of the opposite party.
Some who will not venture to a.s.sert, that the _real_ difference between Whig and Tory, was lost at the _Revolution_, seem inclined to think that the difference is now abolished, and that affairs are so far returned to their natural state, that there are at present no other parties amongst us but _Court_ and _Country_; that is, men who, by interest or principle, are attached either to Monarchy or to Liberty. It must indeed be confessed, that the Tory party seem of late to have decayed much in their numbers, still more in their zeal, and I may venture to say, still more in their credit and authority. There are few men of knowledge or learning, at least few philosophers since Mr. Locke has wrote, who would not be ashamed to be thought of that party; and in almost all companies, the name of _Old Whig_ is mentioned as an incontestable appellation of honour and dignity. Accordingly, the enemies of the ministry, as a reproach, call the courtiers the true _Tories_ and, as an honour, denominate the gentlemen in the Opposition the true _Whigs_.
I shall conclude this subject with observing, that we never had any Tories in Scotland, according to the proper signification of the word, and that the division of parties in this country was really into Whigs and Jacobites. A Jacobite seems to be a Tory, who has no regard to the const.i.tution, but is either a zealous partisan of absolute monarchy, or at least willing to sacrifice our liberties to the obtaining the succession in that family to which he is attached. The reason of the difference betwixt England and Scotland I take to be this. Our political and religious divisions in this country have been, since the Revolution, regularly correspondent to each other. The Presbyterians were all Whigs, without exception; the Episcopalians of the opposite party. And as the clergy of the latter sect were turned out of their churches at the Revolution, they had no motive to make any compliances with the government in their oaths or forms of prayer, but openly avowed the highest principles of their party; which is the cause why their followers have been more barefaced and violent than their brethren of the Tory party in England.
[7] Some of the opinions delivered in these Essays, with regard to the public transactions in the last century, the Author, on a more accurate examination, found reason to retract in his History of Great Britain.
And as he would not enslave himself to the systems of either party, neither would he fetter his judgment by his own preconceived opinions and principles; nor is he ashamed to acknowledge his mistakes. These mistakes were indeed, at that time almost universal in this kingdom.
OF SUPERSt.i.tION AND ENTHUSIASM
That _the corruption of the best of things produces the worst_, is grown into a maxim, and is commonly proved, among other instances, by the pernicious effects of _superst.i.tion_ and _enthusiasm_, the corruptions of true religion.
These two species of false religion, though both pernicious, are yet of a very different, and even of a contrary nature. The mind of man is subject to certain unaccountable terrors and apprehensions, proceeding either from the unhappy situation of private or public affairs, from ill health, from a gloomy and melancholy disposition, or from the concurrence of all these circ.u.mstances. In such a state of mind, infinite unknown evils are dreaded from unknown agents; and where real objects of terror are wanting, the soul, active to its own prejudice, and fostering its predominant inclination, finds imaginary ones, to whose power and malevolence it sets no limits. As these enemies are entirely invisible and unknown, the methods taken to appease them are equally unaccountable, and consist in ceremonies, observances, mortifications, sacrifices, presents, or in any practice, however absurd or frivolous, which either folly or knavery recommends to a blind and terrified credulity. Weakness, fear, melancholy, together with ignorance, are, therefore, the true sources of Superst.i.tion.
But the mind of man is also subject to an unaccountable elevation and presumption, arising from prosperous success, from luxuriant health, from strong spirits, or from a bold and confident disposition. In such a state of mind, the imagination swells with great, but confused conceptions, to which no sublunary beauties or enjoyments can correspond. Every thing mortal and perishable vanishes as unworthy of attention; and a full range is given to the fancy in the invisible regions, or world of Spirits, where the soul is at liberty to indulge itself in every imagination, which may best suit its present taste and disposition. Hence arise raptures, transports, and surprising flights of fancy; and, confidence and presumption still increasing, these raptures, being altogether unaccountable, and seeming quite beyond the reach of our ordinary faculties, are attributed to the immediate inspiration of that Divine Being who is the object of devotion. In a little time, the inspired person comes to regard himself as a distinguished favourite of the Divinity; and when this phrensy once takes place, which is the summit of enthusiasm, every whimsey is consecrated: human reason, and even morality, are rejected as fallacious guides, and the fanatic madman delivers himself over, blindly and without reserve, to the supposed illapses of the Spirit, and to inspiration from above. Hope, pride, presumption, a warm imagination, together with ignorance, are therefore the true sources of Enthusiasm.
These two species of false religion might afford occasion to many speculations, but I shall confine myself, at present, to a few reflections concerning their different influence on government and society.
My _first_ reflection is, _that superst.i.tion is favourable to priestly power, and enthusiasm not less, or rather more contrary to it, than sound reason and philosophy._ As superst.i.tion is founded on fear, sorrow, and a depression of spirits, it represents the man to himself in such despicable colours, that he appears unworthy, in his own eyes, of approaching the Divine presence, and naturally has recourse to any other person, whose sanct.i.ty of life, or perhaps impudence and cunning, have made him be supposed more favoured by the Divinity. To him the superst.i.tious intrust their devotions to his care they recommend their prayers, pet.i.tions, and sacrifices: and by his means, they hope to render their addresses acceptable to their incensed Deity. Hence the origin of Priests, who may justly be regarded as an invention of a timorous and abject superst.i.tion, which, ever diffident of itself, dares not offer up its own devotions, but ignorantly thinks to recommend itself to the Divinity, by the mediation of his supposed friends and servants. As superst.i.tion is a considerable ingredient in almost all religions, even the most fanatical; there being nothing but philosophy able entirely to conquer these unaccountable terrors; hence it proceeds, that in almost every sect of religion there are priests to be found: but the stronger mixture there is of superst.i.tion, the higher is the authority of the priesthood.
On the other hand, it may be observed, that all enthusiasts have been free from the yoke of ecclesiastics, and have expressed great independence in their devotion, with a contempt of forms, ceremonies, and traditions. The _Quakers_ are the most egregious, though, at the same time, the most innocent enthusiasts that have yet been known; and are perhaps the only sect that have never admitted priests among them.
The _Independents_, of all the English sectaries, approach nearest to the _Quakers_ in fanaticism, and in their freedom from priestly bondage.
The _Presbyterians_ follow after, at an equal distance, in both particulars. In short, this observation is founded in experience; and will also appear to be founded in reason, if we consider, that, as enthusiasm arises from a presumptuous pride and confidence, it thinks itself sufficiently qualified to _approach_ the Divinity, without any human mediator. Its rapturous devotions are so fervent, that it even imagines itself _actually_ to _approach_ him by the way of contemplation and inward converse; which makes it neglect all those outward ceremonies and observances, to which the a.s.sistance of the priests appears so requisite in the eyes of their superst.i.tious votaries. The fanatic consecrates himself, and bestows on his own person a sacred character, much superior to what forms and ceremonious inst.i.tutions can confer on any other.
My _second_ reflection with regard to these species of false religion is, _that religions which partake of enthusiasm, are, on their first rise, more furious and violent than those which partake of superst.i.tion; but in a little time become more gentle and moderate._ The violence of this species of religion, when excited by novelty, and animated by opposition, appears from numberless instances; of the _Anabaptists_ in Germany, the _Camisars_ in France, the _Levellers_, and other fanatics in England, and the _Covenanters_ in Scotland. Enthusiasm being founded on strong spirits, and a presumptuous boldness of character, it naturally begets the most extreme resolutions; especially after it rises to that height as to inspire the deluded fanatic with the opinion of Divine illuminations, and with a contempt for the common rules of reason, morality, and prudence.
It is thus enthusiasm produces the most cruel disorders in human society; but its fury is like that of thunder and tempest, which exhaust themselves in a little time, and leave the air more calm and serene than before. When the first fire of enthusiasm is spent, men naturally, in all fanatical sects, sink into the greatest remissness and coolness in sacred matters; there being no body of men among them endowed with sufficient authority, whose interest is concerned to support the religious spirit; no rites, no ceremonies, no holy observances, which may enter into the common train of life, and preserve the sacred principles from oblivion. Superst.i.tion, on the contrary, steals in gradually and insensibly; renders men tame and submissive; is acceptable to the magistrate, and seems inoffensive to the people: till at last the priest, having firmly established his authority, becomes the tyrant and disturber of human society, by his endless contentions, persecutions, and religious wars. How smoothly did the Romish church advance in her acquisition of power! But into what dismal convulsions did she throw all Europe, in order to maintain it! On the other hand, our sectaries, who were formerly such dangerous bigots, are now become very free reasoners; and the _Quakers_ seem to approach nearly the only regular body of _Deists_ in the universe, the _literati_ or the disciples of Confucius in China.[1]
My _third_ observation on this head is, _that superst.i.tion is an enemy to civil liberty, and enthusiasm a friend to it._ As superst.i.tion groans under the dominion of priests, and enthusiasm is destructive of all ecclesiastical power, this sufficiently accounts for the present observation. Not to mention that enthusiasm, being the infirmity of bold and ambitious tempers, is naturally accompanied with a spirit of liberty, as superst.i.tion, on the contrary, renders men tame and abject, and fits them for slavery. We learn from English history, that, during the civil wars, the _Independents_ and _Deists_, though the most opposite in their religious principles, yet were united in their political ones, and were alike pa.s.sionate for a commonwealth. And since the origin of _Whig_ and _Tory_, the leaders of the _Whigs_ have either been _Deists_ or professed _Lat.i.tudinarian_s in their principles; that is, friends to toleration, and indifferent to any particular sect of _Christians_: while the sectaries, who have all a strong tincture of enthusiasm, have always, without exception, concurred with that party in defence of civil liberty. The resemblance in their superst.i.tions long united the High-Church _Tories_ and the _Roman Catholics_, in support of prerogative and kingly power, though experience of the tolerating spirit of the _Whigs_ seems of late to have reconciled the _Catholics_ to that party.
The _Molinists_ and _Jansenists_ in France have a thousand unintelligible disputes, which are not worthy the reflection of a man of sense: but what princ.i.p.ally distinguishes these two sects, and alone merits attention, is the different spirit of their religion. The _Molinists_, conducted by the _Jesuits_, are great friends to superst.i.tion, rigid observers of external forms and ceremonies, and devoted to the authority of the priests, and to tradition. The _Jansenists_ are enthusiasts, and zealous promoters of the pa.s.sionate devotion, and of the inward life, little influenced by authority, and, in a word, but half Catholics. The consequences are exactly conformable to the foregoing reasoning. The _Jesuits_ are the tyrants of the people, and the slaves of the court; and the _Jansenists_ preserve alive the small sparks of the love of liberty which are to be found in the French nation.
[1] The Chinese literati have no priests or ecclesiastical establishment.
OF THE DIGNITY OR MEANNESS OF HUMAN NATURE
There are certain sects which secretly form themselves in the learned world, as well as factions in the political; and though sometimes they come not to an open rupture, they give a different turn to the ways of thinking of those who have taken part on either side. The most remarkable of this kind are the sects founded on the different sentiments with regard to the _dignity of human nature_; which is a point that seems to have divided philosophers and poets, as well as divines, from the beginning of the world to this day. Some exalt our species to the skies, and represent man as a kind of human demiG.o.d, who derives his origin from heaven, and retains evident marks of his lineage and descent. Others insist upon the blind sides of human nature, and can discover nothing, except vanity, in which man surpa.s.ses the other animals, whom he affects so much to despise. If an author possess the talent of rhetoric and declamation, he commonly takes part with the former: if his turn lie towards irony and ridicule, he naturally throws himself into the other extreme.
I am far from thinking that all those who have depreciated our species have been enemies to virtue, and have exposed the frailties of their fellow-creatures with any bad intention. On the contrary, I am sensible that a delicate sense of morals, especially when attended with a splenetic temper, is apt to give a man a disgust of the world, and to make him consider the common course of human affairs with too much indignation. I must, however, be of opinion, that the sentiments of those who are inclined to think favourably of mankind, are more advantageous to virtue than the contrary principles, which give us a mean opinion of our nature. When a man is prepossessed with a high notion of his rank and character in the creation, he will naturally endeavour to act up to it, and will scorn to do a base or vicious action which might sink him below that figure which he makes in his own imagination. Accordingly, we find, that all our polite and fas.h.i.+onable moralists insist upon this topic, and endeavour to represent vice unworthy of man, as well as odious in itself.[1]