Part 47 (2/2)

which aims at such objects as the creation of cooperative a.s.sociations in the working-cla.s.s, to the fanatics who would sweep away existing inst.i.tutions by violence, and who resort to the use of dynamite as a means of inspiring terror.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION SINCE 1871.--_Thiers_ had wonderful success in providing for the payment of the German indemnity. His term of office was prolonged (Aug. 31, 1871) for three years, with the t.i.tle of President. _Thiers_ had cooperated with _MacMahon_ in crus.h.i.+ng the commune, and in wholesome measures for the preservation of order. An adverse vote in the a.s.sembly (May 24, 1873) caused his resignation. This was effected by a combination of the monarchical parties. _MacMahon_, his successor, took a very conservative position. The monarchists united to restore the _Count of Chambord_ to the throne as _Henry V._, but the scheme failed. In February, 1875, a new const.i.tution, of a conservative republican cast, was established, which provided for a president and a cabinet, a senate, and a chamber of deputies. The legitimists, Orleanists, and imperialists united with the president in his reactionary, anti-republican policy. The whole clerical party were on that side. The republicans were divided among themselves, the most radical group being under the leaders.h.i.+p of _Gambetta_. The danger to the republic compelled a common policy. One of the great subjects of controversy related to public education, in the management of which the Church and the clergy desired to retain and extend their influence and control. To secularize education, was a main aim of the body of the republicans. The success of the republicans, against extraordinary efforts made to defeat them, in the elections of 1877, at last prevailed on the marshal-president to accept the verdict of the country; and late in the year a republican cabinet was formed. The measures of _Jules Ferry_ and his supporters, for taking the business of instruction out of the hands of ecclesiastics and of the clerical orders, although most earnestly resisted by Bishop _Dupanloup_ and the whole clerical party, and opposed by a section of the republicans led by _Jules Simon_, were, after heated contention, adopted, and were completely carried out (1880). The death of _Thiers_ (Sept., 1877) did not weaken the party of which he was the most honored leader. The death of the young Prince _Louis Napoleon_ (1879) in South Africa, where he was serving, under the British, against the _Zulus_, was an almost fatal blow to the hopes of the Bonapartist faction. The more recent death of _Count Chambord_ (1883) was followed by the recognition, on the part of the legitimists, of the _Count of Paris_, of the Orleans house, as the next heir to the throne. A manifesto of Prince _Jerome Napoleon_ (1883), after the death of the young Prince _Napoleon_, aroused an agitation against all pretenders to the throne,--in particular, against the Orleanists; which led, after protracted debates, to the forced retirement of all the princes of this family from active service in the French army. In November, 1881, _Gambetta_ became the head of the cabinet; but the opposition to his policy within the republican ranks was stronger than had been antic.i.p.ated. After a short time he laid down his office. He died Dec. 31, 1882. _Jules Grevy_ (first elected Jan. 30, 1879) was re-elected president Dec. 28, 1885. He was forced to resign in 1887 because his son-in-law was implicated in corrupt transactions. His successor was _Sadi Carnot_.

FRENCH CONQUESTS ABROAD.--The failure of France, in the Oriental difficulties, to gain the power which she desired, impelled her to build up colonial interests and settlements. Partly to punish marauding tribes, in 1881, an expedition was sent against _Tunis_; and the Bey was forced to accept a protectorate of the French over his dominion. Thus the French enlarged their power in Africa. This proceeding gave great offense to England, Italy, and the Turkish Sultan. On the ground of a treaty of 1841, a French admiral demanded the submission of the north-west coast of _Madagascar_ to a French protectorate; and when this demand was refused, he bombarded and captured the second city in the island, _Tamatave_ (1883). The efforts of France to gain control over _Tonquin_ and the adjacent territory in _China_ attracted still more attention. _Tonquin_ is the most populous province of the kingdom of _Anam_, of which it formed a part after 1802. Over this kingdom, China claimed the rights of a suzerain; which the French refused to acknowledge. In 1862, after a war lasting for almost four years, _Napoleon III._ obtained from _Anam_, by the treaty of _Saigun_, the provinces called _Cochin-China_. In 1874 the French Republic extorted from King _Tuduc_ of Anam a treaty by which his foreign policy was placed under the direction of France. Against this treaty, China protested. In 1882 the French commander _Riviere_ seized the city of _Hanoi_. The ”Black Flags,” a body of free-lances or pirates, whose leader had been one of the Chinese rebels, fought against the French; but it soon appeared that both the king of _Anam_ and the government of China were in league with his hostile force. Two years later a treaty was signed bringing _Tonkin_ almost directly under French rule and reestablis.h.i.+ng the protectorate in _Anam_.

THE CONFLICT OF PRUSSIA AND THE VATICAN.--The Roman Catholic Church in Germany is recognized as a legal inst.i.tution. Its revenues are received from the state, which, in turn, exercises a supervision over the education of its clergy. In Prussia, especially under _Frederick William IV._, large privileges were granted by law to the Catholic body. The proceedings of the Vatican Council awakened in Germany, as elsewhere in Europe, the apprehension that the decree of papal infallibility might give rise to conflict between the authorities of the Church and of the State. _Bismarck_ considered that the ”ultramontane” party in the Church involved danger to the newly created German Empire. The Prussian government resisted the attempt of the Church, in 1871, to remove from office Catholic teachers who refused to subscribe to the Vatican dogma of papal infallibility. In other words, the government recognized and undertook to protect the ”Old Catholics.”

The contest with the clerical or ultramontane party went on; and before the end of the year, the Catholic branch of the Prussian Ministry of Wors.h.i.+p and Instruction was abolished. In a debate in 1872, _Bismarck_ said, ”Of this be sure, that neither in Church nor in State are we on the way to Canossa.” His policy met with a determined resistance from _Pius IX._ The Jesuits were expelled from the German Empire. This law was afterwards construed to include other orders.

THE FALK LAWS: CONTINUED CONFLICT.--The laws proposed by the Prussian minister of wors.h.i.+p, _Falk_, required that candidates for the clerical office in the Catholic Church should have a training in the gymnasium and university, and that every ecclesiastical appointment should be sanctioned by the civil authorities. They provided for a royal court for the settlement of ecclesiastical questions. These laws were pa.s.sed in 1873. In 1875 civil marriage was made obligatory in the empire. These measures were stoutly resisted by ”the Center,” or the clerical party, in the Prussian Parliament, and in the _Reichstag_. They were declared by the Pope to be invalid, and Roman Catholics were forbidden to obey them. Other enactments, one of which forbade all payments to the bishops and clergy unless they should sign a promise to obey the laws of the state, were adopted by Prussia.

Refractory bishops and priests were punished in various ways. The result was that the Roman Catholic party, led by _Windhorst_, ex-minister of Hanover, in opposition to _Bismarck's_ measures, was consolidated. The struggle extended beyond the bounds of Prussia: it was _Bavaria_, a Catholic state, which proposed the law requiring civil marriage. After the accession of _Leo XIII._, there was on both sides an increased disposition to find terms of peace by which the numerous vacancies in Catholic clerical offices could be filled. The need which _Bismarck_ felt of the support of ”the Center” for his financial measures favored this result. _Falk_ resigned (July 13, 1879), he being personally odious to the Roman party. After long debates, a bill was pa.s.sed (Jan. 1, 1882) giving to the king and his ministers discretionary powers, which opened the way for filling the vacant places. Still, in the great festival at the completion of the Cologne Cathedral (Oct. 15), the clerical party stood aloof. But the mutual friendly approaches of the chancelor and his ultramontane opponents continued. Diplomatic correspondence was opened with the Vatican. Some of the harsher features of the anti-papal legislation were revoked.

BISMARCK AND SOCIALISM.--One motive in this modification of the chancelor's policy was the rapid progress of socialism. At first, while _Bismarck_ was engaged in a struggle with the liberals, who impeded his plans in the Prussian Parliament, he had willingly availed himself of the support of _Lasalle_ and his socialistic followers. But after the war with France, the party of the ”Social Democrats” became more and more numerous and formidable. It was not, however, until a second attempt was made on the emperor's life, that Bismarck was able to carry, against the combination of parties, his measures giving to the government extraordinary powers for the stifling of socialistic agitation (1879). The law for the suppression of socialistic meetings, newspapers, etc., was rigorously enforced.

THE ”PARTICULARISTS.”--Bismarck was, moreover, obliged to contend with the ”Particularists,” who were hostile to the Empire, and with a large number besides them, who were opposed to a greater degree of imperial centralization at the expense of the power of the separate states. Unable to obtain for the imperial government the control over the German railroad system, he devised a plan (1879) by which Prussia would eventually control three-quarters of the railroads of Germany. An imperial code of laws was adopted (1877); but, from jealousy of Prussia, the seat of the supreme court of appeal was fixed at _Leipsic_. In his economical and financial measures, the chancelor was often charged with the exercise of arbitrary power. Free, representative government, according to the English system, did not accord with his idea of the Prussian monarchy, and with the character of the new empire, the unity of which he was naturally anxious to fortify. By his alliance with Austria in 1879, he placed Germany in a situation to resist Russia and France, in case Russia, aggrieved by the action of Germany at the Berlin Conference (1878), should join hands with France in acts of hostility against the German empire. In 1888 _William I._ died and was succeeded by his son, _Frederick III._, who held the sovereignty but a few months, dying June 15, 1888. His son, _William II._, succeeded him.

THE BRITISH SWAY IN INDIA.--British sway by degrees extended itself over India. The fall of the Mogul empire left the country in a state of anarchy. Strife arose with one tribe after another, until the authority of England came to be acknowledged as far north as the Himalayas. The English advance was made with the help of native auxiliaries, and could not have been made without it. It was quite as much an internal revolution as a foreign conquest. As the British enlarged their dominion, and came into conflict with the French, the appet.i.te for supremacy grew. Under the rule of the _Marquis of Wellesley_ (1798-1805), partly through the victories of _Sir Arthur Wellesley_ (afterwards the Duke of Wellington), ”the policy of intervention and annexation” was pursued with brilliant success. The _Burmese_ were conquered, and parts of their territory annexed, in 1826, 1852, and 1885. The effort always was to secure a quiet frontier. In 1843 a war with _Scinde_ resulted in its absorption in British territory. In 1849 the annexation of _Punjab_ followed, a British protectorate having been found insufficient. The misgovernment of the native princes in _Oude_ led to the a.s.sumption of the government of that province by the English in 1856.

THE INDIAN MUTINY.--There was hostility to British rule among the Mohammedans in India, and distrust among the Hindoos. The latter acquired a fanatical belief that the English, who had abolished the burning of widows, and even legalized their marriage, meant to force the people to lose caste by driving them to sacrilegious practices. The report that cartridges had been served out which had been lubricated with the fat of the swine, abhorred by Moslems, and of the cow, venerated by the Hindoos, stirred up a revolt among the native Sepoy troops (1857). The insurrection spread, and was attended with savage cruelties. There was a frightful ma.s.sacre of women and children at _Cawnpore_, before General _Havelock_ could arrive for its relief. The English, who were besieged in _Lucknow_, after terrible suffering, were relieved by the opportune coming of this gallant soldier. All the English residents in _Delhi_, who could not escape into the jungle, were murdered. The weak old king placed himself at the head of the rebellion. _Delhi_ was recaptured by the British, and the conquest completed by _Sir Colin Campbell_ (March 22, 1858). _Oude_ was subdued. Gradually the rebellion was crushed, and merciless severity was exercised by the conquerors upon those most actively concerned in it. One consequence of the revolt was the entire transference of the government of India from the East India Company to the Crown. The measure was introduced into Parliament by _Lord Palmerston_ (1858). Under the ministry of _Disraeli_, and on his motion, the Queen added to her t.i.tles that of ”Empress of India” (1877).

BRITISH WARS WITH THE AFGHANS.--In the last century _Ahmed Khan_, the ruler of Afghanistan, extended his dominion as far as _Delhi_. But he died in 1773, and his son _Timour_ changed the seat of government from _Candahar_ to _Cabul_. In 1838 the English declared war against _Dost Mohammed_, one of the three rulers of the country, whose seat of power was in this city. The British attack was successful; but insurrections broke out (1841), and they agreed to evacuate the country. The whole British army, which had to pa.s.s through the _Kurd-Cabul Pa.s.s_, was destroyed by cold and hunger, and by the hara.s.sing attacks of the mountaineers (1842). It numbered forty-five hundred fighting men and twelve thousand five hundred camp-followers. Another British army, under _Gen. Pollock_, forced the _Khyber Pa.s.s_, and took vengeance on _Cabul_. In 1855 _Dost Mohammed_, now an ally of the English, drove the Persians out of _Herat_, which, as ”the key of India,” the British were anxious to protect against ambitious schemes of Russia. In 1863 he took _Herat_ from _Ahmed_, the sultan there, who was considered a tool of Persia and of Russia. _Dost Mohammed_ died soon after, and was succeeded by his son _Sher Ali Khan_. After the acquisition of _Quetta_ by the English, he began to side with the Russians. His intrigues with them, and his refusal to receive a British emba.s.sy, brought on the second Afghan war of the British (1878-81). The ameer died (Feb. 21, 1879); the Afghans were defeated by _Gen. Roberts_, who took _Cabul_, and installed as ameer _Abdurrahman Khan_ (1880). The English then decided to evacuate the territory. On their march they were attacked by _Ayub Khan_ of Herat. Later he was defeated by _Roberts_, and driven back to that place. The _Gladstone_ ministry had succeeded the ministry of _Disraeli_, who had been anxious to establish a ”scientific frontier” between Afghanistan and the Czar's territories,--such a frontier as would secure a ”neutral zone” between them and India, to serve as a barrier against Russian invasion.

RUSSIA AND AFGHANISTAN.--The gradual approaches of Russia in the direction of _Herat_ have been on two lines. The one is the line south-easterly from the Caspian. She gained a lodgment in 1869 at _Krasnovodsk_ on the eastern sh.o.r.e of that sea. In 1880 _Geopteke_ and _Askabat_ were taken. The other line of aggressive approach is south-westerly from the neighborhood of the Oxus. On this line, partly from displeasure at the English occupation of Egypt, and in pursuance of the policy, adopted especially since the Berlin Conference (1878), to advance towards _Herat_, the Russians suddenly seized _Merv_, an oasis extremely important from a military point of view, over which _Persia_ claimed a certain suzerainty. The Russians occupied it in force, under Gen. _Komaroff_ (March 16, 1884). Subsequently England and Russia agreed to ascertain and fix the northern boundary of Afghanistan. The occupation of _Penjdeh_ by the Afghans, followed by the advance of _Komaroff_,--of which the British complained as an aggression,--brought the two countries to the verge of war (1885).

THE WESTERN POWERS AND EGYPT.--”The Oriental question”--the question relating to Turkey and its dependencies--constantly took on new phases, and presented to the powers of Europe fresh difficulties and dangers of conflict. The Khedive of Egypt, _Ismail Pasha_, was a friend and admirer of _Napoleon III_. and of the French. He succeeded in obtaining from the Sultan repeated concessions, which reduced his dependence on Turkey to little more than an obligation to pay an annual tribute, together with certain marks of respect and honor. His conflicts with lands on the south, _Dafour_ and _Abyssinia_, his extravagant outlays in public works of internal improvement, and the enormous interest paid to foreign capitalists for their loans, involved him in the utmost financial embarra.s.sment. This furnished the occasion to the Western powers, in particular to England and France, to intermeddle still more in Egyptian affairs. The Khedive sold to the British Government his shares in the _Suez Ca.n.a.l_, and gave into the hands of the English and French (1878) the control of the financial administration of the country. This sort of dependence was repugnant to both the Khedive and the Egyptian people. The native officers were pushed into the background. The most lucrative stations were filled by foreigners, and the weight of taxation was almost intolerable. The attempt to throw off this yoke only resulted in the deposition of _Ismail_ by the Sultan, on the demand of the two Western powers. His weak son, _Tewfik Pasha_, took his place. The control of the finances remained in foreign hands. The result of the discontent of the people, and of the disaffection of the Egyptian officers, was a revolt led by _Arabi Pasha_, a military officer (1881). The Khedive complied with the demands of the insurgents: their chief was made minister of war. The Western powers were bent on suppressing this movement, and, in addition to threats and diplomatic measures, sent their fleets to Egypt. A revolt broke out in _Alexandria_, in which the English consul was wounded and many Europeans were slain (June, 1882). The city was filled with terror, and all trade was suspended. The English fleet bombarded the city, and set it on fire. _Arabi_ withdrew his troops to _Cairo_. He was now deposed by the Khedive, and declared a rebel. His troops showed little spirit. The fortifications of _Tel-el-Kebir_ were taken by the English general, Sir _Garnet Wolseley_, almost without resistance. _Aboukir, Damietta_, and _Cairo_ surrendered, and the Egyptian leader, _Arabi_, was captured and banished. From that time Egypt fell into a condition of helpless dependence on England. France found herself without the influence there which she had always coveted since the days of the first _Napoleon_. The system of administration in Egypt was now organized by the English, through Lord _Dufferin_. Great complaint was made against them by the other powers, for not taking sufficient precautions to prevent the introduction of the cholera from India. The princ.i.p.al troubles of the English grew out of the invasion of the false prophet called _El Mahdi_, who gathered to himself a host of followers in the _Soudan_, partly instigated by Moslem fanaticism, but largely impelled by their hatred of the Egyptian government established over that region. The people of the _Soudan_ complained bitterly of the oppressive Egyptian officers. The slave-dealers there were exasperated at the prohibition of their traffic, on which England had insisted. In the course of the conflict with _El Mahdi_, _Hicks Pasha_, an English officer in the service of the Khedive, was defeated and slain, and his force cut to pieces, near _El Obeid_ (Nov. 3, 4, and 5, 1883). There was great fear now for the province of _Sennaar_ and especially for the city of _Khartoum_, where there were many Europeans. Mr. _Gladstone_, and the English ministry of which he was the head, were not disposed to hold the _Soudan_, but desired to give it up as soon as the garrisons could be rescued and brought away. To this policy the Khedive was opposed. The project of a military interference in the _Soudan_ by the Sultan, the English took care to prevent by attaching to it impossible conditions. On the Red Sea, _Osman Digna_, a partisan of the _Mahdi_, made repeated attacks upon _Suakim_, the base of the operations of _Baker Pasha_, another former English officer, now become general of the Egyptian army. On account of the cowardice of the Egyptian troops, _Baker_ was defeated with heavy loss (Feb. 4, 1884). The British troops from _Cairo_ under _Graham_ had better success; and _Osman Digna_ was vanquished, and driven into the mountains. The English government adopted the extraordinary measure of sending General _Gordon_ to Khartoum; his errand being to pacify the tribes of the _Soudan_, to provide for the deliverance of the garrisons, and to arrange terms of accommodation with _El Mahdi_. This last it was found impossible to accomplish. _Berber_ was captured by the enemy, and garrison and male population were slaughtered. _Gordon_ was shut up in _Khartoum_. The peculiar financial situation obliged the English ministry to hold a conference of the great powers (June 28, 1885) at London. Lord _Granville_ insisted that only financial points, and not the general Egyptian question, should be considered, which did not accord with the views of the other powers, and the conference adjourned without effecting anything. The perilous situation of _Gordon_, and the feeling in England on this account, obliged the government to send out General _Wolseley_ with a large force to Egypt; but before aid could be given _Gordon_, _Khartoum_, was betrayed, and he was slain. The course of England respecting Egypt had left her isolated as regards the other European powers, and had awakened much disaffection in England. It was the policy of the Gladstone ministry in relation to Egypt, even more than complaints growing out of their conduct in the troubles with Russia, that obliged them to resign, and to give place to the Tory cabinet of Lord _Salisbury_. Upon the death of _Tewfik_ (Jan. 7, 1892) his son, _Abbas Pasha_, became khedive.

GREAT BRITAIN AND CANADA.--On the cession of Canada to Great Britain (1763), the French inhabitants of _Lower Canada_ were secured in the free exercise of the Catholic religion, and in the possession of equal rights with English settlers. ”The Quebec Act” of 1774 made Canada one royal government, and brought in the English criminal code with trial by jury. During the Revolution, many loyalists emigrated to Upper Canada. A strong desire arose for a repeal of the ”Quebec Act.”

In 1791, under _Pitt_, the two parts of Canada were made separate provinces. A const.i.tution was granted, which provided for an elective legislature for each. The governors, the executive councils, and the legislative councils were to be appointed by the Crown. The governments were still subject to the Colonial Office in London. A spirit of opposition between the two provinces increased. _Upper Canada_, under English law, grew in numbers and prosperity; but the growth of population in _Lower Canada_ was much more rapid. Here there was an antagonism between the a.s.sembly and the English governors. There was an open rebellion in 1837, which spread into Upper Canada. The two Canadas were united in 1841; the executive department became responsible, as in England, to the popular branch of the legislature; and under the liberal and enlightened administration of Lord _Elgin_ (1847-54), a better feeling arose. He was obliged, however, to suppress a mob of the conservatives, or ”loyalists” (1849), who were hostile to the extension of a general amnesty to former rebels. In 1856 the Upper House was made elective. In 1857 _Ottawa_ was made the seat of government. In 1867 the _Dominion of Canada_ was const.i.tuted. It was at first a federal union of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Canadas; _Upper Canada_ receiving the name of _Ontario,_ and _Lower Canada_ being named _Quebec._ _Manitoba,_ formed out of a part of Hudson Bay Territory, was admitted to the Dominion in 1870, and _British Columbia_ in 1871. _Prince Edward Island_ was admitted in 1873; and the same year the territories were received by transfer from the Hudson Bay Company. The Dominion has a Senate and a House of Commons. The authority of the Crown is represented by the governor-general and the council. Legislation is subject to a veto from the sovereign. Each province has its local government, but whatever powers are not expressly reserved to the several provinces are granted to the General Government,--a provision the reverse of that found in the Const.i.tution of the United States, which the Canadian system in various features resembles.

In the Peace of Utrecht (1713), France gave up its claim to _Nova Scotia:_ the Peace of Paris (1763) surrendered to Great Britain _New Brunswick,_ and _Cape Breton_ and _Prince Edward_ islands. These are known at present as the _maritime provinces._ When the American War of Revolution began, thousands of loyalists emigrated to _Nova Scotia,_ as well as to _Upper Canada,_ from whom many of the present inhabitants are descended. The island of _Vancouver,_ on the western coast of _British Columbia,_ was surrendered to the navigator of this name by _Quadra,_ a Spanish commander, in 1792. In 1843 a trading-post was established at _Victoria_ by the Hudson Bay Company. The island forms politically a part of _British Columbia._ The Government of the Dominion, when British Columbia was received, engaged to construct a railway to the Pacific across British North America. England acquired a t.i.tle to _Newfoundland_ in 1713. It first received a const.i.tution in 1832. The government was made responsible to the a.s.sembly in 1852.

GREAT BRITAIN AND AUSTRALIA.--Australia, which covers an area of three million square miles, when it was first visited by Europeans was found to be inhabited by native tribes of the Papuan, Melanesian, or Australasian race, of whom about eighty thousand now remain. In the seventeenth century, various points along its coasts were touched by European voyagers, especially by the Dutch. The discoveries of Captain _Cook_ (1769 to 1777) had an important influence in leading to settlements on this island-continent. _New South Wales,_ a name given by _Cook,_ is the oldest of the English provinces in Australia. Not _Botany Bay,_ which he had selected for a settlement, but _Port Jackson,_ was made a penal station (1788) for convicts from England. This place, however, continued to be erroneously called _Botany Bay._ The princ.i.p.al harbor was named _Sydney Cove._ In 1803 _Van Dieman's Land,_ now called _Tasmania,_ was first occupied. Thus the beginnings of colonization in Australia were made by the dregs of English society. The convicts labored for their own support, and, when their terms had expired, sometimes received as a gift small farms, and implements with which to till them. The character of the settlement, and the management of it, became much more humane after 1810, when _Macquarie_ became governor. Free colonists, English and Scotch, came and joined it. The discovery of the upland pastures beyond the Blue Mountains, which were remarkably adapted to sheep, made an epoch in the history of the colony. Spanish merino sheep were introduced: wool became the chief staple; the production of it, especially after the invention of the combing-machine, became very profitable, and free emigrants poured in. The Australian Agricultural Company was formed in England. Western Australia began to be settled in 1829, but did not thrive. New colonies continued to be formed in Eastern Australia. South Australia was made prosperous by copper-mines. Victoria, which became a distinct province in 1851, owes its growth to gold mines. _Melbourne_, its chief town, was planted in 1837. The first British governors at _Sydney_ were military officers, ruling with despotic authority. Representative inst.i.tutions were gradually formed in the different provinces. The const.i.tutions were framed on the model of the home government; but in _Victoria_ and _Tasmania_ the Upper House was made elective. After long conflicts with the home government, the Australian colonies escaped from the misfortune of being places to which convicts were transported. The discovery of gold in _New South Wales_ and _Victoria_ was made in 1851, and caused at once an immense influx of immigrants. Next to gold, the most important article of export has been wool. Wheat and copper have been exported in large quant.i.ties. The breeding of cattle has been a profitable employment in these communities.

NEW ZEALAND.--In 1838 the first regular and permanent settlement was made in New Zealand. _Wellington_ was founded in the next year. New Zealand, with South Island and North Island, became a colony independent of Australia in 1841.

ENGLAND AND IRELAND.--The disaffection of the Irish, and their antipathy to English rule, broke out in different forms, as circ.u.mstances changed. For a long time the demand was for ”Catholic emanc.i.p.ation.” This was granted (p. 558); but most of the English concessions were made under such a pressure, and in appearance so grudgingly, that little was accomplished by them in placating Irish hostility. The outcry against t.i.thes for the support of the Protestant Established Church was to a great extent quieted in 1838, when the odious features of this tax were removed. The Act disestablis.h.i.+ng the Irish Protestant Church, carried by Mr. _Gladstone_ in 1869, and put in execution in 1871, took away one of the great grievances of which the Irish nation had to complain. The repeal of the legislative union of England and Ireland was the watchword of _O'Connell_ and his followers. In one form or another, the demand for local self-government or independence, which has been more lately urged under the name of ”home rule,” has been kept up with little intermission. It is about the special question of land reform that the most bitter conflicts have centered. The owners.h.i.+p of a great part of the land in Ireland by a few persons: the fact that great obstacles and great expenses--difficulties of late somewhat lightened--have existed in the way of the transference of land if any one had the means to purchase it: the circ.u.mstances that the owners have generally been, not residents, but absent landlords; that, in cases of dispute with tenants, the laws were for a long period framed in their interest; that the management of estates was left to agents or middle-men; that mult.i.tudes of tenants, whose holdings were small, could glean a bare subsistence from the soil, were doomed to famine if the potato-crop failed, and, when unable to pay th

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