Part 9 (1/2)
[Sidenote: _The priestly codes_]
The influences represented by Ezekiel and the Holiness Code have given us the remaining laws of the Old Testament. These are found in Leviticus i-xvi., xxviii., and, excepting Exodus xx.-xxiii., x.x.xiv., in the legal sections of Exodus and Numbers. They deal almost entirely with such ceremonial subjects, as the forms and rules of sacrifice, the observation of the annual religious festivals, and the rights and duties of priests. Many of them incorporated laws and customs as old or older than the days of Moses. An early and important group, technically known as the Priestly teaching (Lev. i.-iii., v.-vii., xi.-xv.; Num. v., vi., xv., xix. 14-22), is repeatedly designated as _the torah of the burnt-offering_ (Lev. vi. 9), or _the torah of the meal-offering_ (vi, 14), or _the torah of the unclean and clean beast or bird_ (xi. 46, 47).
It is evidently based upon the _toroth_, or decisions, rendered by the priests concerning the various ceremonial questions thus treated. The recurring phrase, _according to the ordinance_, probably refers to the fixed usage observed in connection with the first temple.
[Sidenote: _Their date_]
The atmosphere and point of view of these priestly laws as a whole are the exilic and post-exilic periods. The ritual has become much more elaborate, the position of the priests much more prominent, and their income far greater than before the exile. The distinction between priest and Levite, which was not recognized before the exile, is clearly defined. The annual feasts have increased, and their old joyous character has largely disappeared under the dark shadow of the exile.
Sin-offerings, guilt-offerings, trespa.s.s-offerings, and the day of atonement (practically unknown before the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.) reflect the spirit of the later Judaism which sought to win Jehovah's favor by its many sacrifices. Within these priestly codes there is also evidence of development. The older collections, such as the priestly teachings, were probably made early in the Babylonian exile. Others represent the gradual expansion and supplementing of these older groups, the process apparently continuing until the days of Nehemiah and Ezra.
The whole, therefore, is the fruit of the remarkable priestly literary activity between 600 and 400 B.C., and possibly extending even later.
[Sidenote: _Adoption of the priestly law about 400 B.C._]
The Jewish community which Nehemiah found in Palestine was still living under the Deuteronomic law, and apparently knew nothing of the very different demands of the priestly codes. His reform measures recorded in Nehemiah v. and xiii., as well as his effective work in repairing the walls, prepared the way for the sweeping innovations which followed the public acceptance of the new law-book, brought according to tradition by Ezra. Five out of the eight regulations specified by the oath then taken by the leaders of the nation (Neh. x. 30-39) are found only in the priestly codes; one of them, indeed, is not presented elsewhere in the Old Testament. Henceforth the life of the Jewish race is moulded by these later codes. It is, therefore, safe to conclude that they const.i.tuted the essence of the new law-book solemnly adopted by the Jewish community as its guide somewhere about 400 B.C.
[Sidenote: _Aim and characteristics of the priestly narratives_]
Inasmuch as the interest of the priests centred in ceremonial inst.i.tutions and the history of the law rather than about individuals and politics, it was natural that they also should write their own history of the race. Their general purpose was to give an introduction and setting to their laws. As might be antic.i.p.ated, this priestly history incorporates the traditions of the late priestly school, and therefore those current long centuries after the events recorded transpired. As in the case of the prophetic narratives, the aim is not primarily historical, but doctrinal. The peculiar vocabulary, language, and theological conceptions are those which distinguish the post-exilic priestly editors of the latest Old Testament laws.
[Sidenote: _Their sketch of the earlier history_]
Their history begins with the majestic account of creation in Genesis i.
1 to ii. 4a. G.o.d does not form man from the dust, as in the primitive prophetic account, but by a simple word of command; and by progressive acts of creation he realizes his perfect plan, which culminates in the creation of mankind. The literary style is that of a legalist: formal, precise, repet.i.tious, and generic. The ultimate aim of the narrative is to trace the origin of the inst.i.tution of the Sabbath back to the creation. The genealogical history of Genesis v. connects this account of creation with the priestly version of the flood story which leads up to the covenant with Noah. The priestly genealogical histories of Genesis x. and xi. 10-27 trace the ancestry of the Hebrews through Abraham. Regarding this patriarch these later historians present only a brief sketch; in Genesis xvii., however, they expand their narrative to give in detail the origin of the rite of circ.u.mcision, which they a.s.sociate with him. Jacob is to them chiefly of interest as the father of the ten tribes.
[Sidenote: _from Egypt to Canaan_]
The history of the experiences of the Hebrews in Egypt is briefly outlined as the prelude to the traditional inst.i.tution of the feast of the pa.s.sover. Sinai, however, is the great goal of the priestly narratives, for about it they group all their laws. It is their concrete method of proclaiming the antiquity and divine origin of Israelitish legislation. The period of the wilderness wandering is also made the background of many important legal precedents. The priestly history concludes with an account of the conquest of Canaan and the allotment of the territory to the different tribes.
[Sidenote: _The lack of historical perspective_]
In these late priestly narratives the historical perspective is sometimes considerably shortened and sometimes lengthened. Moreover, their representation often differs widely from that of the parallel but much earlier prophetic histories. The original traditions have also a.s.sumed larger proportions, and the supernatural element is much more prominent. This is evidently the result of long transmission, in an age that had largely lost the historic sense, and among the priestly exiles, who were far removed from the real life of Palestine.
[Sidenote: _Variations between the older and later narratives_.]
The wide variations between the older prophetic and late priestly accounts of the same events might be ill.u.s.trated by scores of examples.
The following parallel account of the exodus will suffice:
[Sidenote: _Early Judean Prophetic Account_]
Ex. xiv. l9b. Then the pillar of cloud changed its position from before them and stood behind them. (20b) And the cloud lighted up the night; yet throughout the entire night the one _army_ did not come near the other. (21b) And Jehovah caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all the night, and made the bed of the sea dry. (24b) And it came to pa.s.s in the watch before the dawn that Jehovah looked forth through the pillar of fire and of cloud upon the host of the Egyptians, (25) and he bound their hors.e.m.e.n.
[Sidenote: _Late Priestly Account of the Exodus_]
(21a, c) Then Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and the waters were divided, (22) so that the Israelites went into the midst of the sea on the dry ground; and the waters were a wall to them on their right hand and on their left. (23b) And the Egyptians went in after them into the midst of the sea, all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots, and his hors.e.m.e.n. (26) Then Jehovah said to Moses, Stretch out thy hand over the sea, that the waters may come again upon the Egyptians, upon their chariots and their chariot wheels, so that they proceeded with difficulty. Then the Egyptians said, Let us flee from before Israel; for Jehovah fighteth for them against the Egyptians. (27b) But the sea returned to its ordinary level toward morning, while the Egyptians were flying before it. And Jehovah shook off the Egyptians into the midst of the sea, (28b) so that not one of them remained. (30) Thus Jehovah saved Israel that day out of the power of the Egyptians; and Israel saw the Egyptians dead upon the sea-sh.o.r.e.
(27a) So Moses stretched forth his hand over the sea, (28a) and the waters returned and covered the chariots, and the hors.e.m.e.n, even all the host of Pharaoh that went in after them into the sea. (29) But the Israelites walked upon dry land in the midst of the sea, the waters being a wall to them on their right hand, and on their left. [Footnote: ”Student's Old Testament,” Vol. I., 175, 176.]
[Sidenote: _Inferior historical value of the priestly narratives_]
No one can doubt for a moment that the older, simpler, and more natural version is, from the historical point of view, the more accurate.