Volume Iii Part 14 (2/2)

Thus I observed them on a length of more than a hundred leagues, in the littoral chain of Venezuela; in the stratified granite of Las Trincheras at Porto Cabello; in the gneiss of the islands of the lake of Valencia, and in the vicinity of the Villa de Cura; in the transition-slate and greenstone on the north of Parapara; in the road from La Guayra to the town of Caracas, and through all the Sierra de Avila in Cape Codera; and in the mica-slate and clay-slate of the peninsula of Araya. The same direction from north-east to south-west, and this inclination to north-west, are also manifest, although less decidedly, in the limestones of c.u.manacoa at Cuchivano and between Guanaguana and Caripe. The exceptions to this general law are extremely rare in the gneiss-granite of the littoral Cordillera; it may even be affirmed that the inverse direction (from south-east to north-west) often bears with it the inclination towards south-west.

As that part of the group of the Sierra Parime over which I pa.s.sed contains much more granite* than gneiss (* Only the granite of the Baragon is stratified, as well as crossed by veins of granite: the direction of the beds is north 20 degrees west), and other rocks distinctly stratified, the direction of the layers could be observed in this group only on a small number of points; but I was often struck in this region with the continuity of the phenomenon of loxodromism.

The amphibolic slates of Angostura run north 45 degrees east, like the gneiss of Guapasoso which forms the bed of the Atabapo, and like the mica-slate of the peninsula of Araya, though there is a distance of 160 leagues between the limits of those rocks.

The direction of the strata, of which we have just noticed the wonderful uniformity, is not entirely parallel with the longitudinal axes of the two coast chains, and the chain of Parime. The strata generally cut the former of those chains at an angle of 35 degrees, and their inclination towards the north-west becomes one of the most powerful causes of the aridity which prevails on the southern declivity* of the mountains of the coast. (* This southern declivity is however less rapid than the northern.) May we conclude that the direction of the eastern Cordillera of New Grenada, which is nearly north 45 degrees east from Santa Fe de Bogota, to beyond the Sierra Nevada de Merida, and of which the littoral chain is but a continuation, has had an influence on the direction (hor. 3 to 4) of the strata in Venezuela? That region presents a very remarkable loxodromism with the strata of mica-slate, grauwacke, and the orthocerat.i.te limestone of the Alleghenies, and that vast extent of country (lat.i.tude 56 to 68 degrees) lately visited by Captain Franklin. The direction north-east to south-west prevails in every part of North America, as in Europe in the Fitchtelgebirge of Franconia, in Taunus, Westerwald, and Eifel; in the Ardennes, the Vosges, in Cotentin, in Scotland and in the Tarentaise at the south-west extremity of the Alps. If the strata of rocks in Venezuela do not exactly follow the direction of the nearest Cordillera, that of the sh.o.r.e, the parallelism between the axis of one chain, and the strata of the formations that compose it, are manifest in the Brazil group.* (* The strata of the primitive and intermediary rocks of Brazil run very regularly, like the Cordillera of Villarica (Serra do Espinhaco) hor. 1.4 or hor. 2 of the compa.s.s of Freiberg (north 28 degrees east.))

SECTION 3.

NATURE OF THE ROCKS.

RELATIVE AGE AND SUPERPOSITION OF THE FORMATIONS.

PRIMITIVE, TRANSITION, SECONDARY, TERTIARY, AND VOLCANIC STRATA.

The preceding section has developed the geographical limits of the formations, the extent of the direction of the zones of gneiss-granite, mica-slate-gneiss, clay-slate, sandstone and intermediary limestone, which come successively to light. We will now indicate succinctly the nature and relative age of these formations.

To avoid confounding facts with geologic opinions I shall describe these formations, without dividing them, according to the method generally followed, into five groups--primitive, transition, secondary, tertiary and volcanic rocks. I was fortunate enough to discover the types of each group in a region where, before I visited it, no rock had been named. The great inconvenience of the old cla.s.sification is that of obliging the geologist to establish fixed demarcations, while he is in doubt, if not respecting the spot or the immediate superposition, at least respecting the number of the formations which are not developed. How can we in many circ.u.mstances determine the a.n.a.logy existing between a limestone with but few petrifactions and an intermediary limestone and zechstein, or between a sandstone superposed on a primitive rock and a variegated sandstone and quadersandstein, or finally, between muriatiferous clay and the red marl of England, or the gem-salt of the tertiary strata of Italy?

When we reflect on the immense progress made within twenty-five years in the knowledge of the superposition of rocks, it will not appear surprising that my present opinion on the relative age of the formations of Equinoctial America is not identically the same with what I advanced in 1800. To boast of a stability of opinion in geology is to boast of an extreme indolence of mind; it is to remain stationary amidst those who go forward. What we observe in any one part of the earth on the composition of rocks, their subordinate strata and the order of their position are facts immutably true, and independent of the progress of positive geology in other countries; while the systematic names applied to any particular formation of America are founded only on the supposed a.n.a.logies between the formations of America and those of Europe. Now those names cannot remain the same if, after further examination, the objects of comparison have not retained the same place in the geologic series; if the most able geologists now take for transition-limestone and green sandstone, what they took formerly for zechstein and variegated sandstone. I believe the surest means by which geologic descriptions may be made to survive the change which the science undergoes in proportion to its progress, will be to subst.i.tute provisionally in the description of formations, for the systematic names of red sandstone, variegated sandstone, zechstein and Jura limestone, names derived from American localities, as sandstone of the Llanos, limestone of c.u.manacoa and Caripe, and to separate the enumeration of facts relative to the superposition of soils, from the discussion on the a.n.a.logy of those soils with those of the Old World.*

(* Positive geography being nothing but a question of the series or succession (either simple or periodical) of certain terms represented by the formations, it may be necessary, in order to understand the discussions contained in the third section of this memoir, to enumerate succinctly the table of formations considered in the most general point of view.

1. Strata commonly called Primitive; granite, gneiss and mica-slate (or gneiss oscillating between granite and mica-slate); very little primitive clay-slate; weisstein with serpentine; granite with disseminated amphibole; amphibolic slate; veins and small layers of greenstone.

2. Transition strata, composed of fragmentary rocks (grauwacke), calcareous slate and greenstone, earliest remains of organized existence: bamboos, madrepores, producta, trilobites, orthocerat.i.tes, evamphalites). Complex and parallel formations; (a) Alternate beds of grey and stratified limestone, anthracitic mica-slate, anhydrous gypsum and grauwacke; (b) clay-slate, black limestone, grauwacke with greenstone, syenite, transition-granite and porphyries with a base of compact felspar; (c) Euphotides, sometimes pure and covered with jasper, sometimes mixed with amphibole, hyperstein and grey limestone; (d) Pyroxenic porphyries with amygdaloides and zirconian syenites.

3. Secondary strata, presenting a much smaller number of monocotyledonous plants; (a) Co-ordinate and almost contemporary formations with red sandstone (rothe todtes liegende), quartz-porphyry and fern-coal. These strata are less connected by alternation than by opposition. The porphyries issue (like the trachytes of the Andes) in domes from the bosom of intermediary rocks. Porphyritic breccias which envelope the quartzose porphyries. (b) Zechstein or Alpine limestone with marly, bituminous slate, fetid limestone and variegated gypsum (Productus aculeatus). (c) Variegated sandstone (bunter sandstein) with frequent beds of limestone; false oolites; the upper beds are of variegated marl, often muriatiferous (red marl, salzthon) with hydrated gypsum and fetid limestone. The gem-salt oscillates from zechstein to muschelkalk. (d) Limestone of Gottingen or muschelkalk alternating towards the top with white sandstone or brittle sandstein.

(Ammonitis nodosus, encrinites, Mytilus socialis): clayey marl is found at the two extremities of muschelkalk. (e) White sandstone, brittle sandstein, alternating with lias, or limestone with graphites; a quant.i.ty of dicotyledonous mixed with monocotyledonous plants. (f) Jura limestone of complex formation; a quant.i.ty of sandy intercalated marl. We most frequently observe, counting from below upwards; lias (marly limestone with gryphites), oolites, limestone with polypi, slaty limestone with fish, crustacea, and globules of oxide of iron (Amonites planulatus, Gryphaea arcuata). (g) Secondary sandstone with lignites; iron sand; Wealden clay; greensand or green sandstone; (h) Chlorite; tufted and white chalk; (planerkalk, limestone of Verona.)

4. Tertiary strata, showing a much smaller number of dicotyledonous plants. (a) Clay and tertiary sandstone with lignites; plastic clay; molla.s.se and nagelfluhe, sometimes alternating where chalk is wanting, with the last beds of Jura limestone; amber. (b) Limestone of Paris or coa.r.s.e limestone, limestone with circles, limestone of Bolca, limestone of London, sandy limestone of Bognor; lignites. (c) Silicious limestone and gypsum with fossil bones alternating with marl. (d) Sandstone of Fontainebleau. (e) Lacustrine soil with porous millstone grit. (e) Alluvial deposits.)

1. CO-ORDINATE FORMATIONS OF GRANITE, GNEISS AND MICA-SLATE.

There are countries (in France, the vicinity of Lyons; in Germany, Freiberg, Naundorf) where the formations of granite and gneiss are extremely distinct; there are others, on the contrary, where the geologic limits between those formations are slightly marked, and where granite, gneiss and mica-slate appear to alternate by layers or pa.s.s often from one to the other. These alternations and transitions appeared to me less common in the littoral Cordillera of Venezuela than in the Sierra Parime. We recognise successively, in the former of these two systems of mountains, above all in the chain nearest the coast, as predominating rocks from west to east, granite (longitude 70 to 71 degrees), gneiss (longitude 68 1/2 to 70 degrees), and mica-slate (longitude 65 3/4 to 66 1/2 degrees); but considering altogether the geologic const.i.tution of the coast and the Sierra Parime, we prefer to treat of granite, gneiss and mica-slate, if not as one formation, at least as three co-ordinate formations closely linked together. The primitive clay-slate (urthonschiefer) is subordinate to mica-slate, of which it is only a modification. It no more forms an independent stratum in the New Continent, than in the Pyrenees and the Alps.

(a) GRANITE which does not pa.s.s to gneiss is most common in the western part of the coast-chain between Turmero, Valencia and Porto Cabello, as well as in the circle of the Sierra Parime, near the Encaramada, and at the Peak of Duida. At the Rincon del Diablo, between Mariara and Hacienda de Cura, and at Chuao, it is coa.r.s.e-grained, and contains fine crystals of felspar, 1 1/2 inches long. It is divided in prisms by perpendicular vents, or stratified regularly like secondary limestone, at Las Trincheras, the strait of Baraguan in the valley of the Orinoco, and near Guapasoso, on the banks of the Atabapo. The stratified granite of Las Trincheras, giving birth to very hot springs (from 90.5 degrees centigrade), appears from the inclination of its layers to be superposed on gneiss which is seen further southward in the islands of the lake of Valencia; but conjectures of superposition founded only on the hypothesis of an indefinite prolongation of the strata are doubtful; and possibly the granite ma.s.ses which form a small particular zone in the northern range of the littoral Cordillera, between 70 degrees 3 minutes and 70 degrees 50 minutes longitude, were upheaved in piercing the gneiss.

The latter rock is prevalent, both in descending from the Rincon del Diablo southward to the hot-springs of Mariara, and towards the banks of the lake of Valencia, and in advancing on the east towards the group of Buenavista, the Silla of Caracas and Cape Codera. In the region of the littoral chain of Venezuela, where granite seems to const.i.tute an independent formation from 15 to 16 leagues in length, I saw no foreign or subordinate layers of gneiss, mica-slate or primitive limestone.* (* Primitive limestone, everywhere so common in mica-slate and gneiss, is found in the granite of the Pyrenees, at Port d'Oo, and in the mountains of Labourd.)

The Sierra Parime is one of the most extensive granitic strata existing on the globe;* but the granite, which is seen alike bare on the flanks of the mountains and in the plains by which they are joined, often pa.s.ses into gneiss. (* To prove the extent of the continuity of this granitic stratum, it will suffice to observe that M. Leschenault de la Tour collected in the bars of the river Mana, in French Guiana, the same gneiss-granites (with a little amphibole) which I observed three hundred leagues more to the west, near the confluence of the Orinoco and the Guaviare.) Granite is most commonly found in its granular composition and independent formation, near Encaramada, at the strait of Baraguan, and in the vicinity of the mission of the Esmeralda. It often contains, like the granites of the Rocky Mountains (lat.i.tude 38 to 40 degrees), the Pyrenees and Southern Tyrol, amphibolic crystals,* disseminated in the ma.s.s, but without pa.s.sing to syenite. (* I did not observe this mixture of amphibole in the granite of the littoral chain of Venezuela except at the summit of the Silla of Caracas.) Those modifications are observed on the banks of the Orinoco, the Ca.s.siquiare, the Atabapo, and the Tuamini. The blocks heaped together, which are found in Europe on the ridge of granitic mountains (the Riesengebirge in Silesia, the Ochsenkopf in Franconia), are especially remarkable in the north-west part of the Sierra Parime, between Caycara, the Encaramada and Uruana, in the cataracts of the Maypures and at the mouth of the Rio Vichada. It is doubtful whether these ma.s.ses, which are of cylindrical form, parallelopipedons rounded on the edge, or b.a.l.l.s of 40 to 50 feet in diameter, are the effect of a slow decomposition, or of a violent and instantaneous upheaving. The granite of the south-eastern part of Sierra Parime sometimes pa.s.ses to pegmat.i.te,* composed of laminary felspar, enclosed in curved ma.s.ses of crystalline quartz. (*

Schrift-granit. It is a simple modification of the composition and texture of granite, and not a subordinate layer. It must not be confounded with the real pegmat.i.te, generally dest.i.tute of mica, or with the geographic stones (piedras mapajas) of the Orinoco, which contain streaks of dark green mica irregularly disposed.) I saw gneiss only in subordinate layers;* (* The magnetic sands of the rivers that furrow the granitic chain of the Encaramada seem to denote the proximity of amphibolic or chloritic slate (hornblende or chloritschiefer), either in layers in the granite, or superposed on that rock.); but, between Javita, San Carlos del Rio Negro, and the Peak of Duida, the granite is traversed by numerous veins of different ages, abounding with rock-crystal, black tourmalin and pyrites. It appears that these open veins become more common on the east of the Peak of Duida, in the Sierra Pacaraina, especially between Xurumu and Rupunuri (tributaries of the Rio Branco and the Essequibo), where Hortsmann discovered, instead of diamonds* and emeralds, a mine (four) of rock-crystal. (* These legends of diamonds are very ancient on the coast of Paria. Petrus Martyr relates that, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, a Spaniard named Andres Morales bought of a young Indian of the coast of Paria admantem mire pretiosum, duos infantis digiti articulos longum, magni autem pollicis articulum aequantem cra.s.situdine, acutum utrobique et costis octo pulchre formatis constantem. [A diamond of marvellous value, as long as two joints of an infant's finger, and as thick as one of the joints of its thumb, sharp on both sides, and of a beautiful octagonal shape.] This pretended adamas juvenis pariensis resisted the action of lime. Petrus Martyr distinguishes it from topaz by adding offenderunt et topazios in littore, [they pay no heed to topazes on the coast] that is of Paria, Saint Marta and Veragua. See Oceanica Dec. 3 lib. 4 page 53.)

(b) GNEISS predominates along the littoral Cordillera of Venezuela, with the appearance of an independent formation, in the northern chain from Cerro del Chuao, and the meridian of Choroni, as far as Cape Codera; and in the southern chain, from the meridian of Guigne to the mouth of the Rio Tuy. Cape Codera, the great ma.s.s of the Silla of Galipano, and the land between Guayra and Caracas, the table-land of Buenavista, the islands of the lake of Valencia, the mountains between Guigne, Maria Magdalena and the Cerro do Chacao are composed of gneiss;* (* I have been a.s.sured that the islands Orchila and Los Frailes are also composed of gneiss; Curacao and Bonaire are calcareous. Is the island of Oruba (in which nuggets of native gold of considerable size have been found) primitive?); yet amidst this soil of gneiss, inclosed mica-slate re-appears, often talcous in the Valle de Caurimare, and in the ancient Provincia de Los Mariches; at Cabo Blanco, west of La Guayra; near Caracas and Antimano, and above all, between the tableland of Buenavista and the valleys of Aragua, in the Montana de las Cocuyzas, and at Hacienda del Tuy. Between the limits here a.s.signed to gneiss, as a predominant rock (longitude 68 1/2 to 70 1/2 degrees), gneiss pa.s.ses sometimes to mica-slate, while the appearance of a transition to granite is only found on the summit of the Silla of Caracas.* (* The Silla is a mountain of gneiss like Adams Peak in the island of Ceylon, and of nearly the same height.) It would require a more careful examination than I was able to devote to the subject, to ascertain whether the granite of the peak of St. Gothard, and of the Silla of Caracas, really lies over mica-slate and gneiss, or if it has merely pierced those rocks, rising in the form of needles or domes. The gneiss of the littoral Cordillera, in the province of Caracas, contains almost exclusively garnets, rutile t.i.tanite and graphite, disseminated in the whole ma.s.s of the rock, shelves of granular limestone, and some metalliferous veins. I shall not decide whether the granitiferous serpentine of the table-land of Buenavista is inclosed in gneiss, or whether, superposed upon that rock, it does not rather belong to a formation of weisstein (heptinite) similar to that of Penig and Mittweyde in Saxony.

In that part of the Sierra Parime which M. Bonpland and myself visited, gneiss forms a less marked zone, and oscillates more frequently towards granite than mica-slate. I found no garnets in the gneiss of Parime. There is no doubt that the gneiss-granite of the Orinoco is slightly auriferous on some points.

(c) MICA-SLATE, with clay-slate (thonschiefer), forms a continuous stratum in the northern chain of the littoral Cordillera, from the point of Araya, beyond the meridian of Cariaco, as well as in the island of Marguerita. It contains, in the peninsula of Araya, garnets disseminated in the ma.s.s, cyanite and, when it pa.s.ses to clayey-slate, small layers of native alum. Mica-slate const.i.tuting an independent formation must be distinguished from mica-slate subordinate to a stratum of gneiss, on the east of Cape Codera. The mica-slate subordinate to gneiss presents, in the valley of Tuy, shelves of primitive limestone and small strata of graphic ampelite (zeicheschiefer); between Cabo Blanco and Catia layers of chloritic, granitiferous slate, and slaty amphibole; and between Caracas and Antimano, the more remarkable phenomenon of veins of gneiss inclosing b.a.l.l.s of granitiferous diorite (grunstein).

In the Sierra Parime, mica-slate predominates only in the most eastern part, where its l.u.s.tre has led to strange errors.

The amphibolic slate of Angostura, and ma.s.ses of diorite in b.a.l.l.s, with concentric layers, near Muitaco, appear to be superposed, not on mica-slate, but immediately on gneiss-granite. I could not, however, distinctly ascertain whether a part of this pyritous diorite was not enclosed on the banks of the Orinoco, as it is at the bottom of the sea near Cabo Blanco, and at the Montana de Avila, in the rock which it covers. Very large veins, with an irregular direction, often a.s.sume the aspect of short layers; and the b.a.l.l.s of diorite heaped together in hillocks may, like many cones of basalt, issue from the crevices.

Mica-slate, chloritic slate and the rocks of slaty amphibole contain magnetic sand in the tropical regions of Venezuela, as in the most northern regions of Europe. The gannets are there almost equally disseminated in the gneiss (Caracas), the mica-slate (peninsula of Araya), the serpentine (Buenavista), the chloritic slate (Cabo Blanco), and the diorite or greenstone (Antimano). These garnets re-appear in the trachytic porphyries that crown the celebrated metalliferous mountain of Potosi, and in the black and pyroxenic ma.s.ses of the small volcano of Yana-Urca, at the back of Chimborazo.

Petroleum (and this phenomenon is well worthy of attention) issues from a soil of mica-slate in the gulf of Cariaco. Further east, on the banks of the Arco, and near Cariaco, it seems to gush from secondary limestone formations, but probably that happens only because those formations repose on mica-slate. The hot springs of Venezuela have also their origin in, or rather below, the primitive rocks. They issue from granite (Las Trincheras), gneiss (Mariara and Onoto) and the calcareous and arenaceous rocks that cover the primitive rocks (Morros de San Juan, Bergantin, Cariaco). The earthquakes and subterraneous detonations of which the seat has been erroneously sought in the calcareous mountains of c.u.mana have been felt with most violence in the granitic soils of Caracas and the Orinoco. Igneous phenomena (if their existence be really well certified) are attributed by the people to the granitic peaks of Duida and Guaraco, and also to the calcareous mountain of Cuchivano.

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