Part 22 (1/2)

30.See Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: Norton, 1997), pp. 21012. (New York: Norton, 1997), pp. 21012.

31.Kamen, Spain's Road to Empire Spain's Road to Empire, p. 273. For a detailed description of the conflict between indigenous landowners and ladino settlers in Central America, and the Spanish government's attempts to protect the former, see David Browning, El Salvador: Landscape and Society El Salvador: Landscape and Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), pp. 78125. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), pp. 78125.

32.Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 169.

33.Ibid., p. 170.

34.Ibid., p. 175.

35.It also convinced the philosopher Georg F. W. Hegel that the historical process had come to an end.

36.See Hans Rosenberg, Bureaucracy, Aristocracy, and Autocracy: The Prussian Experience, 16601815 Bureaucracy, Aristocracy, and Autocracy: The Prussian Experience, 16601815 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958); and Hans-Eberhard Mueller, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958); and Hans-Eberhard Mueller, Bureaucracy, Education, and Monopoly: Civil Service Reforms in Prussia and England Bureaucracy, Education, and Monopoly: Civil Service Reforms in Prussia and England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).

25: EAST OF THE ELBE.

1.Jerome Blum, ”The Rise of Serfdom in Eastern Europe,” American Historical Review American Historical Review 62 (1957). 62 (1957).

2.Jerome Blum, The European Peasantry from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century The European Peasantry from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: Service Center for Teachers of History, 1960), pp. 1213. (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: Service Center for Teachers of History, 1960), pp. 1213.

3.Ibid., pp. 1516.

4.Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the Revolution The Old Regime and the Revolution, book II, chaps. 8, 12.

5.Richard h.e.l.lie, Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), pp. 7792. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), pp. 7792.

6.Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia Lord and Peasant in Russia, p. 370.

7.Pirenne, Medieval Cities Medieval Cities, pp. 77105.

8.See Max Weber, The City The City (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1958). (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1958).

9.Szucs, ”Three Historical Regions of Europe,” in Keane, ed., pp. 310, 313.

10.See Laszlo Makkai, ”The Hungarians' Prehistory, Their Conquest of Hungary and Their Raids to the West to 955,” and ”The Foundation of the Hungarian Christian State, 9501196,” in Peter F. Sugar, ed., A History of Hungary A History of Hungary (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990). (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990).

11.Laszlo Makkai, ”Transformation into a Western-type State, 11961301,” in Sugar, A History of Hungary A History of Hungary; Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, p. 271.

12.Denis Sinor, History of Hungary History of Hungary (New York: Praeger, 1959), pp. 6263. (New York: Praeger, 1959), pp. 6263.

13.Janos M. Bak, ”Politics, Society and Defense in Medieval and Early Modern Hungary,” in Bak and Bela K. Kiraly, eds., From Hunyadi to Rakoczi: War and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Hungary From Hunyadi to Rakoczi: War and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Hungary (Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn College Program on Society and Change, 1982). (Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn College Program on Society and Change, 1982).

14.Unlike the Russian state, where power rested on a firm alliance between the king and the lower gentry, the Hungarian king found himself opposed by this cla.s.s, as well as by the barons and the church. And unlike the English king, he had no powerful court or incipient royal bureaucracy on which to base his power. Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, pp. 27273; Makkai, ”Transformation to a Western-type State,” pp. 2425.

15.Sinor, History of Hungary History of Hungary, pp. 7071.

16.Thomas Ertman argues that Hungary faced no serious geopolitical pressure until the rise of the Ottomans in the fifteenth century, but it is not certain that this was the case in light of the wars fought by Louis and later kings. Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, pp. 27376.

17.Pal Engel, ”The Age of the Angevins, 13011382,” in Sugar, A History of Hungary A History of Hungary, pp. 4344.

18.C. A. Macartney, Hungary: A Short History Hungary: A Short History (Chicago: Aldine, 1962), pp. 4647. (Chicago: Aldine, 1962), pp. 4647.

19.Janos Bak, ”The Late Medieval Period, 13821526,” in Sugar, A History of Hungary A History of Hungary, pp. 5455.

20.On the inst.i.tutionalization of the Hungarian Diet, see Gyorgy Bonis, ”The Hungarian Federal Diet (13th18th Centuries),” Recueils de la societe Jean Bodin Recueils de la societe Jean Bodin 25 (1965): 28396. 25 (1965): 28396.

21.Martyn Rady, n.o.bility, Land and Service in Medieval Hungary n.o.bility, Land and Service in Medieval Hungary (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 159. (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 159.

22.Pal Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 8951526 The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 8951526 (London: I. B. Tauris Publishers, 2001), p. 278. (London: I. B. Tauris Publishers, 2001), p. 278.

23.Bak, ”The Late Medieval Period,” p. 65.

24.On the rise of Hunyadi, see Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen The Realm of St. Stephen, pp. 288305.

25.Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan Birth of the Leviathan, p. 288.

26.Bak, ”The Late Medieval Period,” pp. 7174.

27.Makkai, ”Transformation to a Western-type State,” pp. 3233.

28.Blum, ”The Rise of Serfdom.”

29.Bak, ”The Late Medieval Period,” pp. 7879.

30.McNeill, Europe's Steppe Frontier Europe's Steppe Frontier, p. 34.

26: TOWARD A MORE PERFECT ABSOLUTISM.

1.See Andreas Schedler, Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Compet.i.tion Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Compet.i.tion (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006). (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006).

2.These rankings come from the 2008 Corruption Perception Index, transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi.

3.Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 79. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 79.

4.Marquis de Custine, La Russie en 1839 La Russie en 1839 (Paris: Amyot, 1843). (Paris: Amyot, 1843).

5.In Mongolia itself, Genghis Khan is today revered as a national hero. But even in Russia there has been a search for the nation's authentic roots that has cast the Mongol period in a better light. See, for example, Jack Weatherford, Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World (New York: Crown, 2004). (New York: Crown, 2004).

6.For a summary judgment, see Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia, pp. 7883.

7.Ibid., p. 116; Sergei Fedorovich Platonov, History of Russia History of Russia (Bloomington: University of Indiana Prints and Reprints, 1964), pp. 10124. (Bloomington: University of Indiana Prints and Reprints, 1964), pp. 10124.

8.See h.e.l.lie, Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy, chap. 2; John P. LeDonne, Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s: The Formation of the Russian Political Order 17001825 Absolutism and Ruling Cla.s.s: The Formation of the Russian Political Order 17001825 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 6; Blum, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 6; Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia Lord and Peasant in Russia, pp. 17071.

9.As usual, many Soviet historians used a very broad economic definition of feudalism and argued that it existed from Kievan times up to the late nineteenth century. Using a Blochian definition of feudalism, it is clear that there were similarities but also definite differences, and that ”Russian social forms often appear to be rudimentary, or at least simpler and cruder, versions of Western models.” Riasanovsky, A History of Russia A History of Russia, pp. 12728.

10.Ibid., p. 164.

11.Ibid., p. 257.

12.Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia Lord and Peasant in Russia, pp. 14446.