Part 14 (2/2)

CHAPTER x.x.xI. CLODIUS AND MILO.--DEATH OF CRa.s.sUS.

During the nine years (59-50) pa.s.sed by Caesar in Gaul, great confusion prevailed at Rome. The Republic needed a strong, firm hand, which would stop the shedding of blood and insure security of person and property.

Pompey had attempted to bring about this result, but had failed. There were two prominent factions, one led by CLODIUS, the other by MILO.

”Clodius is the most extraordinary figure in this extraordinary period.

He had no character. He had no distinguished talent save for speech; he had no policy; he was ready to adopt any cause or person which for the moment was convenient to him; and yet for five years this man was the leader of the Roman mob. He could defy justice, insult the Consuls, beat the Tribunes, parade the streets with a gang of armed slaves, killing persons disagreeable to him; and in the Senate itself he had high friends and connections, who threw a s.h.i.+eld over him when his audacity had gone beyond endurance.” Milo was as disreputable as Clodius. His chief fame had been gained in the schools of the gladiators. Gangs of armed slaves accompanied him everywhere, and there were constant collisions between his retainers and those of Clodius.

In 57 Consuls were elected who favored Cicero, and his recall was demanded. Clodius and his followers opposed the recall. The n.o.bles, led by their tool Milo, pressed it. Day after day the opposing parties met in b.l.o.o.d.y affrays. For seven months the brawl continued, till Milo's party finally got the ascendancy; the a.s.sembly was convened, and the recall voted.

For seventeen months Cicero had been in Greece, lamenting his hard lot.

He landed at Brundisium on August 5, 57, and proceeded to Rome. Outside the city all men of note, except his avowed enemies, were waiting to receive him. The Senate voted to restore his property, and to rebuild his palace on the Palatine Hill and his other villas at the public expense. But Clodius, with his bands of ruffians, interrupted the workmen engaged in the repair of his Palatine house, broke down the walls, and, attacking Cicero himself, nearly murdered him.

At last Clodius even attempted to burn the house of Milo. The long struggle between these two ruffians culminated when Milo was a candidate for the consuls.h.i.+p, and Clodius for the praetors.h.i.+p. The two meeting by accident in the Via Appia at Bovillae, Clodius was murdered, 20 January, 52. This act of violence strengthened Pompey, who was nominated sole Consul. Milo was impeached. His guilt was evident, and he went into exile at Ma.s.silia. Cicero prepared an elaborate speech in his defence, but did not dare to deliver it.

During the interval between the two campaigns of 57 and 56, Caesar renewed his alliance with his two colleagues in interviews that were held at Ravenna and Luca. He retained the command of Gaul; Pompey, that of Spain; Cra.s.sus, that of Syria.

CRa.s.sUS now undertook the war against the Parthians. He was accompanied by his son, who had done good service under Caesar in Gaul. They arrived at Zeugma, a city of Syria, on the Euphrates; and the Romans, seven legions strong, with four thousand cavalry, drew themselves up along the river. The Quaestor, Ca.s.sIUS, a man of ability, proposed to Cra.s.sus a plan of the campaign, which consisted in following the river as far as Seleucia, in order not to be separated from his fleet and provisions, and to avoid being surrounded by the cavalry of the enemy. But Cra.s.sus allowed himself to be deceived by an Arab chief, who lured him to the sandy plains of Mesopotamia at Carrhae.

The forces of the Parthians, divided into many bodies, suddenly rushed upon the Roman ranks, and drove them back. The young Cra.s.sus attempted a charge at the head of fifteen hundred hors.e.m.e.n. The Parthians yielded, but only to draw him into an ambush, where he perished, after great deeds of valor. His head, carried on the end of a pike, was borne before the eyes of his unhappy father, who, crushed by grief and despair, gave the command into the hands of Ca.s.sius. Ca.s.sius gave orders for a general retreat. The Parthians subjected the Roman army to continual losses, and Cra.s.sus himself was killed in a conference (53).

In this disastrous campaign there perished more than twenty thousand Romans. Ten thousand were taken prisoners and compelled to serve as slaves in the army of the Parthians.

The death of Cra.s.sus broke the Triumvirate; that of Julia, in 54, had sundered the family ties between Caesar and Pompey, who married Cornelia, the widow of the young Cra.s.sus, and daughter of Metellus Scipio.

CHAPTER x.x.xII. CAESAR'S STRUGGLE WITH POMPEY.--BATTLE OF PHARSALIA.

Pompey was elected sole Consul in February, 52. He at once threw off all pretence of an alliance with Caesar, and devoted himself to the interests of the Senate and aristocracy.

The brilliant successes of Caesar in Gaul had made a profound impression upon the minds of the citizens, to whom the name of the northern barbarians was still fraught with terror. Caesar had won for himself distinction as a soldier greater than the Scipios, or Sulla, or Pompey.

”He was coming back to lay at his country's feet a province larger than Spain, not only subdued, but reconciled to subjugation; a nation of warriors, as much devoted to him as his own legions.” The n.o.bility had watched his successes with bitter envy; but they were forced to vote a thanksgiving of twenty days, which ”the people made sixty.”

Caesar now declared through his followers at Rome that he desired a second consuls.h.i.+p. But he wished first to celebrate his triumph, and on this account would not disband his army; for, according to the custom, he could not triumph without it. According to another custom, however, he must disband it before he could offer himself as a candidate for the consuls.h.i.+p. But he asked permission to set aside this custom, and to become a candidate while he was in the province in command of the army.

The law requiring a candidate to give up his command had been suspended several times before this; so that Caesar's request was reasonable. His enemies in the city were numerous and powerful, and he felt that, if he returned as a private citizen, his personal safety would be in danger; whereas, if he were a magistrate, his person would be considered sacred.

The Senate, on the other hand, felt that, if he carried his point, the days of their influence were numbered. Their first step, therefore, was to weaken Caesar, and to provide their champion, Pompey, with a force in Italy, They voted that Caesar should return to Pompey a legion which had been loaned him, and also should send another legion back to Italy. The vote was taken on the ostensible plea that the troops were needed in Asia Minor against the Parthians; but when they reached Italy they were placed under Pompey's command in Campania. The Consuls chosen for the year 49 were both bitter enemies of Caesar. He had taken up his winter quarters at Ravenna, the last town in his province bordering on Italy.

From here he sent a messenger with letters to the Senate, stating that he was ready to resign his command, if Pompey did the same. The messenger arrived at Rome, January 1, 49, on the day in which the new Consuls entered upon their duties.

The letters were read in the Senate, and there followed a spirited discussion, resulting in a decree that Caesar should resign his command.

The Tribunes opposed; but, being threatened by the Consuls, they were compelled to leave the city, and went directly to Ravenna.

<script>