Volume II Part 65 (2/2)

517 seqq.; _Tohfut-ul-Mujahideen_, p. 56; _Bretschneider_, p. 19.)

NOTE 2.--Frankincense presents a remarkable example of the obscurity which so often attends the history of familiar drugs; though in this case the darkness has been, like that of which Marco spoke in his account of the Caraonas (vol. i. p. 98), much of man's making.

This coast of Hadhramaut is the true and ancient [Greek: chora libanophoros] or [Greek: libanotophoros], indicated or described under those names by Theophrastus, Ptolemy, Pliny, Pseudo-Arrian, and other cla.s.sical writers; i.e. the country producing the fragrant gum-resin called by the Hebrews _Lebonah_, by the Brahmans apparently _Kundu_ and _Kunduru_, by the Arabs _Luban_ and _Kundur_, by the Greeks _Libanos_, by the Romans _Thus_, in mediaeval Latin _Olibanum_, and in English _Frankincense_, i.e.

I apprehend, ”Genuine incense,” or ”Incense Proper.”[1] It is still produced in this region and exported from it: but the larger part of that which enters the markets of the world is exported from the roadsteads of the opposite Sumali coast. In ancient times also an important quant.i.ty was exported from the latter coast, immediately west of Cape Gardafui (_Aromatum Prom._), and in the Periplus this frankincense is distinguished by the t.i.tle _Peratic_, ”from over the water.”

The _Marasid-al-Ittila'_, a Geog. Dictionary of the end of the 14th century, in a pa.s.sage of which we have quoted the commencement in the preceding note, proceeds as follows: ”The other Dhafar, which still subsists, is on the sh.o.r.e of the Indian Sea, distant 5 parasangs from Merbath in the province of Shehr. Merbath lies below Dhafar, and serves as its port. Olibanum is found nowhere except in the mountains of Dhafar, in the territory of Shehr; in a tract which extends 3 days in length and the same in breadth. The natives make incisions in the trees with a knife, and the incense flows down. This incense is carefully watched, and can be taken only to Dhafar, where the Sultan keeps the best part for himself; the rest is made over to the people. But any one who should carry it elsewhere than to Dhafar would be put to death.”

The elder Niebuhr seems to have been the first to disparage the Arabian produce of olibanum. He recognises indeed its ancient celebrity, and the fact that it was still to some extent exported from Dhafar and other places on this coast, but he says that the Arabs preferred foreign kinds of incense, especially benzoin; and also repeatedly speaks of the superiority of that from India (_des Indes_ and _de l'Inde_), by which it is probable that he meant the same thing--viz., benzoin from the Indian Archipelago. Niebuhr did not himself visit Hadhramaut.

Thus the fame of Arabian olibanum was dying away, and so was our knowledge of that and the opposite African coast, when Colebrooke (1807) published his Essay on Olibanum, in which he showed that a gum-resin, identical as he considered with frankincense, and so named (_Kundur_), was used in India, and was the produce of an indigenous tree, _Boswellia serrata_ of Roxburgh, but thereafter known as _B. thurifera_. This discovery, connecting itself, it may be supposed, with Niebuhr's statements about Indian olibanum (though probably misunderstood), and with the older tradition coming down from Dioscorides of a so-called Indian _libanos_ (supra p. 396), seems to have induced a hasty and general a.s.sumption that the Indian resin was the olibanum of commerce; insomuch that the very existence of Arabian olibanum came to be treated as a matter of doubt in some respectable books, and that down to a very recent date.

In the Atlas to Bruce's Travels is figured a plant under the name of _Angoua_, which the Abyssinians believed to produce true olibanum, and which Bruce says did really produce a gum resembling it.

In 1837 Lieut. Cruttenden of the Indian Navy saw the frankincense tree of Arabia on a journey inland from Merbat, and during the ensuing year the trees of the Sumali country were seen, and partially described by Kempthorne, and Vaughan of the same service, and by Cruttenden himself.

Captain Haines also in his report of the Survey of the Hadhramaut coast in 1843-1844[2] speaks, apparently as an eyewitness, of the frankincense trees about Dhafar as extremely numerous, and adds that from 3000 to 10,000 _maunds_ were annually exported ”from Merbat and Dhafar.” ”3 to 10”

is vague enough; but as the kind of _maund_ is not specified it is vaguer still. Maunds differ as much as _livres Francais_ and _livres sterling_.

In 1844 and 1846 Dr. Carter also had opportunities of examining olibanum trees on this coast, which he turned to good account, sending to Government cuttings, specimens, and drawings, and publis.h.i.+ng a paper on the subject in the Journal of the Bombay Branch of the R. As. Society (1847).

[Ill.u.s.tration: The Harvest of Frankincense in Arabia. Facsimile of an engraving in Thevet's _Cosmographie Universelle_ (1575), reproduced from the _Bible Educator_.[3]]

But neither Dr. Carter's paper and specimens, nor the previous looser notices of the naval officers, seemed to attract any attention, and men of no small repute went on repeating in their manuals the old story about Indian olibanum. Dr. G. Birdwood however, at Bombay, in the years following 1859, took up the subject with great zeal and intelligence, procuring numerous specimens of the Sumali trees and products; and his monograph of the genus _Boswellia_ in the Linnaean Transactions (read April 1869), to which this note is very greatly indebted, is a most interesting paper, and may be looked on, I believe, as embodying the most correct knowledge as yet attainable. The species as ranked in his table are the following:

[Ill.u.s.tration: Boswellia Frereana (_Birdw._).

1. _Boswellia Carterii_ (Birdw.), including the Arabian tree of Dhafar, and the larger variety called _Mohr Madau_ by the Sumalis.

2. _B. Bhau-dajiana_ (Birdw.), _Mohr A'd_ of the Sumalis.

3. _B. papyrifera_ (Richard). Abyssinian species.

4. _B. thurifera_ (Colebr.), see p. 396 supra.

5. _B. Frereana_ (Birdw.), _Yegar_ of the Sumalis--named after Mr. William Frere, Member of Council at Bombay. No. 2 was named from Bhau Daji, a very eminent Hindu scholar and physician at Bombay (Birdw.).]

No. 1 produces the Arabian olibanum, and Nos. 1 and 2 together the bulk of the olibanum exported from the Sumali coast under the name _Luban-Shehri_.

Both are said to give an inferior kind besides, called _L. Bedawi_. No. 3 is, according to Birdwood, the same as Bruce's _Angoua_. No. 5 is distinctly a new species, and affords a highly fragrant resin sold under the name of _Luban Meti_.

Bombay is now the great mart of frankincense. The quant.i.ty exported thence in 1872-1873 was 25,000 _cwt._, of which nearly one quarter went to China.

Frankincense when it first exudes is milky white; whence the name ”White Incense” by which Polo speaks of it. And the Arabic name _luban_ apparently refers to milk. The Chinese have so translated, calling _Ju-siang_ or Milk-perfume.

Polo, we see, says the tree was like a fir tree; and it is remarkable that a Chinese Pharmacology quoted by Bretschneider says the like, which looks as if their information came from a common source. And yet I think Polo's must have been oral. One of the meanings of _Luban_, from the Kamus, is _Pinus (Freytag)_. This may have to do with the error. Dr. Birdwood, in a paper _Ca.s.sells' Bible Educator_, has given a copy of a remarkable wood engraving from Thevet's _Cosmographie Universelle_ (1575), representing the collection of Arabian olibanum, and this through his kind intervention I am able to reproduce here. The text (probably after Polo) speaks of the tree as resembling a fir, but in the cut the firs are in the background; the incense trees have some real suggestion of _Boswellia_, and the whole design has singular spirit and verisimilitude.

Dr. Birdwood thus speaks of the _B. Frereana_, the only species that he has seen in flower: ”As I saw the plant in Playfair's garden at Aden ... in young leaf and covered with bloom, I was much struck by its elegant singularity. The long racemes of green star-like flowers, tipped with the red anthers of the stamens (like aigrettes of little stars of emerald set with minute rubies), droop gracefully over the cl.u.s.ters of glossy, glaucous leaves; and every part of the plant (bark, leaves, and flowers) gives out the most refres.h.i.+ng lemon-like fragrance.” (_Birdwood_ in Linnaean Transactions for 1869, pp. 109 seqq.; _Hanbury and Fluckiger's Pharmacographia_, pp. 120 seqq.; _Ritter_, xii. 356 seqq.; _Niebuhr, Desc. de l'Arabie_, I. p. 202, II. pp. 125-132.)

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