Part 1 (2/2)
We shall, sooner or later, arrive at a mechanical equivalent of consciousness, just as we have arrived at a mechanical equivalent of heat.” But, Huxley, himself, was afterwards constrained to acknowledge that: ”How it is that anything so remarkable as a state of consciousness comes about by the result of irritating nervous tissue, is just as unaccountable as the appearance of the _jinnee_ when Aladdin rubbed his lamp.”
The most advanced authorities of the day, are inclined to the opinion that both Matter and Mind are both differing aspects of some one fundamental Something; or, as some of the closest thinkers state it, both are probably two apparently differing manifestations or emanations of an Underlying Something which, as Spencer says: ”transcends not only our reason but also our imagination.” The study of philosophy and metaphysics serves an important purpose in showing us _how much we do not know_, and why we do not know--also in showing us the fallacy of many things we had thought we did know--but when it comes to telling us the real ”why,” actual cause, or essential nature of _anything_, it is largely a disappointment to those who seek fundamental truths and ultimate reasons. It is much more comfortable to ”abjure the 'Why' and seek the 'How'”--if we can.
Many psychologists cla.s.sify the activities of the mind into three general divisions; _viz._, (1) Thinking; (2) Willing; (3) Feeling. These divisions, which result from what is known as ”the tri-logical cla.s.sification,” were first distinctly enunciated by Upham although Kant had intimated it very plainly. For many years before the favored division was but two-fold the line of division being between the _cognitive_, or knowing, activities, and the _conative_, or acting, activities, generally known as the Understanding and the Will, respectively. It took a long time before the authorities would formally recognize the great field of the Feelings as forming a cla.s.s by themselves and ranking with the Understanding and the Will. There are certain sub-divisions and shadings, which we shall notice as we proceed, some of which are more or less complex, and which seem to shade into others. The student is cautioned against conceiving of the mind as a thing having several compartments or distinct divisions. The cla.s.sification does not indicate this and is only intended as a convenience in a.n.a.lyzing and studying the mental activities and operations. The ”I” which feels, thinks and acts is the same--one ent.i.ty.
As Brooks well says: ”The mind is a self-conscious activity and not a mere pa.s.sivity; it is a centre of spiritual forces, all resting in the background of the ego. As a centre of forces, it stands related to the forces of the material and spiritual universe and is acted upon through its susceptibilities by those forces. As a spiritual activity, it takes the impressions derived from those forces, works them up into the organic growth of itself, converts them into conscious knowledge and uses these products as means to set other forces into activity and produce new results. Standing above nature and superior to its surroundings, it nevertheless feeds upon nature, as we may say, and transforms material influences into spiritual facts akin to its own nature. Related to the natural world and apparently originating from it, it yet rises above this natural world and, with the crown of freedom upon its brow, rules the natural obedient to its will.”
In this book, while we shall fully and unquestionably recognize the ”tri-logical cla.s.sification” of the activities of the Mind into the divisions of Thinking, Willing and Feeling, respectively, nevertheless, we shall, for convenience, use the term ”Thought” in its broadest, widest and most general sense, as: ”The power or faculty of thinking; the mental faculty; the mind,” rather than in its narrower and particular sense of: ”the understanding or cognitive faculty of the mind.” Accordingly, we shall include the cultivation of the mental activities known as Attention, Perception, Imagination, etc., together with the strictly cognitive faculties, under the general term of Thought-Culture.
CHAPTER III.
PHASES OF THOUGHT
We have seen that the Mind is that something within us which Thinks, Feels and Wills. There are various phases of these three forms of activity. These phases have often been called ”the faculties of the mind,” although many authorities decry the use of this term, holding that it gives an impression of _several parts or divisions_ of the mind, separate and distinct from each other, whereas these phases are merely the several _powers or forms of activity_ of the Mind. Every manifestation of mental activity falls under one of the three before-mentioned general forms, i.e., Thinking, Feeling and Willing, respectively. Every manifestation of mental activity is either that of the Intellect, the Feelings, or the Will. Let us consider the first of these three general forms of mental activity--the Intellect.
The _Intellect_ is defined as: ”That faculty or phase of the human mind by which it receives or comprehends the ideas communicated to it by the senses or by perception, or other means, as distinguished from the power to feel and to will; the power or faculty to perceive objects in their relations; the power to judge and comprehend; also the capacity for higher forms of knowledge as distinguished from the power to perceive and imagine.” The term itself is derived from the Latin term _intellectus_, the primary meaning of which is ”to choose between,”
which primary meaning will give the true essential meaning of the term in its present usage; namely, the faculty or phase of the mind by which we ”choose between” things or by which we _decide_.
The phase or faculty of Intellect concerns itself with Thinking, in the particular and narrower sense of that term. Its products are _thoughts_, _mental images_ and _ideas_. An _idea_ or _mental image_ is a mental conception of anything, as for instance our conception which we express by the terms, _man_, _animal_, _house_, _etc._ Sometimes the word _idea_ is used to express merely the abstract or generalized conception of the thing, as, for instance, _Man_ in the sense of ”all men;” while _mental image_ is used in the sense of the mental conception of some one particular thing, as a ”_a man_;” it being held that no mental image can be had of a generalization. A _thought_ is held to be a mental product arising from a combination of two or more ideas or mental images, as for instance: ”A horse is an animal;” ”a man is a biped;” etc.
The Intellect is held to embrace and include a number of minor phases or faculties, such as Perception, Understanding, Imagination, Memory, Reason and Intuition, which are explained as follows:
_Perception_ is that faculty of the Mind which interprets the material presented to it by the senses. It is the power whereby we gain our knowledge of the external world, as reported to us by the channels of sense. Through Perception we are able to form ideas and mental images, which in turn lead to thoughts. The objects of which we become conscious through Perception are called _percepts_, which form the bases of what we call _concepts_, or ideas.
_Understanding_ is that faculty of the Mind by the means of which we are able intelligently to compare the objects presented to it by Perception, and by which we separate them into parts by a.n.a.lysis, or to combine them into greater cla.s.ses, or wholes, by synthesis. It produces ideas, both abstract and general; also concepts of truths, laws, principles, causes, etc. There are several sub-phases of Understanding, which are known as: Abstraction, Conception or Generalization, or Judgment and Reasoning, respectively, which are explained as follows:
_Abstraction_ is that faculty of the Mind which enables it to abstract, or draw off, and consider apart from an object, a particular _quality_ or _property_ of an object, thus making of the quality or property a distinct object of thought apart from the original object. Thus are the _abstract ideas_ of _sweetness_, _color_, _hardness_, _courage_, _beauty_, etc., which we have abstracted or _drawn off_ from their original a.s.sociations, either for the purpose of putting them out of sight and consideration, or else to view and consider them by themselves. No one ever tasted ”sweetness” although one may have tasted _sweet things_; no one ever saw ”red,” although one may have seen _red things_; no one ever saw, heard, tasted or felt ”courage” in another, although one may have seen _courageous people_. Abstract ideas are merely the mental conception of _qualities_ or _properties_ divorced from their a.s.sociated objects by Abstraction.
_Conception_ or Generalization is that faculty of the Mind by which it forms and groups together several particular ideas in the form of _a general idea_. By the processes of Conception we form _cla.s.ses_ or _generalizations_ from particular ideas arising from our _percepts_.
First, we _perceive_ things; then we _compare_ them with each other; then we abstract their particular qualities, which are not common to the several objects; then we _generalize_ them according to their resemblances; then we _name_ the generalized concept. From these combined processes we form a Concept, or _general idea_ of the cla.s.s of things to which the particular things belong. Thus from subjecting a number of cows to this process, we arrive at the general Concept of ”Cow.” This general Concept includes all the qualities and properties _common to all cows_, while omitting those which are not common to the cla.s.s. Or, we may form a concept of Napoleon Bonaparte, by combining his several qualities and properties and thus form a _general idea_ of the man.
_Judgment_ is that faculty of the Mind whereby we determine the agreement or disagreement between two concepts, ideas, or objects of thought, by comparing them with each other. From this comparison arises the judgment, which is expressed in the shape of a logical _proposition_: ”The horse is an animal;” or ”the horse is not a cow.”
Judgment is also used in forming a concept, in the first place, for we must _compare qualities_ before we can form a _general idea_.
_Reasoning_ is that faculty of the Mind whereby we compare two Judgments, one with the other, and from the comparison deduce a third Judgment. This is a form of indirect or mediate comparison, whereas the Judgment is a form of immediate or direct comparison. From this process of Reasoning arises a result which is expressed in what is called a Syllogism, as for instance: ”All dogs are animals; Carlo is a dog; therefore, Carlo is an animal.” Or expressed in symbols: ”A equals C; and B equals C;” therefore, ”A equals B.” Reasoning is of two kinds or cla.s.ses; _viz._, Inductive and Deductive, respectively. We have explained these forms of Reasoning in detail in another volume of this series.
_The Feelings_ are the mental faculties whereby we experience emotions or feelings. Feelings are the experiencing of the agreeable or disagreeable nature of our mental states. They can be defined only in their own terms. If we have never experienced a feeling, we cannot understand the words expressing it. Feelings result in what are called emotion, affection and desire. An emotion is the simple feeling, such as joy, sorrow, etc. An affection is an emotion reaching out toward another and outside object, such as envy, jealousy, love, etc. A desire is an emotion arising from the _want_ of some lacking quality or thing, and the inclination to possess it.
_Memory_ is the faculty of the Mind whereby we retain and reproduce, or consciously revive any kind of past mental experience. It has two sub-phases; _viz._, Retention and Recollection, respectively. It manifests in the storing away of mental images and ideas, and in the reproduction of them at a later period of time, and also of the recognition of them as objects of past experience.
_Imagination_ is the faculty of the Mind whereby we represent (_re-pre-sent_) as a mental image some previously experienced idea, concept or image. Its activities are closely allied and blended with those of the Memory. It has the power not only of reproducing objects already perceived but also another power of _ideal creation_ whereby it _creates_ new combinations from the materials of past experience. It is a faculty, the importance of which is but little understood by the majority of men. Inasmuch as the mental image must always precede the material manifestation, the cultivation of the Imagination becomes a matter of great importance and worthy of the closest study.
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