Part 14 (2/2)

HOW JUDGMENTS FUNCTION IN REASONING--Such a line of thinking is very common to everyone, and one that we carry out in one form or another a thousand times every day we live When we co at a conclusion, we detect a series of judged, to be sure, but yet so related that the result is safely reached in the end We compare our concept of, say, the first route and our concept of picturesqueness, decide they agree, and affirment, ”This route is picturesque”

Likee arrive at the judg, etc” Then we take the other routes and forments are all related to each other in so nificant ones, the ones which are used to solve the problem finally, depends on which concepts are the most vital for us with reference to the ultimate end in view If ti would be so like this: ”Two of the routes require more than three days: hence I must take the third route” If economy is the important end, the solution would be as follows: ”Two routes cost more than 1,000; I cannot afford to pay more than 800; I therefore must patronize the third route”

In both cases it is evident that the conclusion is reached through a co discovers relations between judgiven well illustrates the ordinary method by which we reason to conclusions

DEDUCTION AND THE SYLLOGISM--Logic ments on which it is based, and foris is a classical type:

All men are mortal; Socrates is a ment is in the form of a proposition which is called the _ all men

The second is the _minor premise_, since it deals with a particular man

The third is the _conclusion_, in which a new relation is discovered between Socrates andis _deductive_, that is, it proceeds fro is an abbreviated forism, and will readily expand into it For instance, we say, ”It will rain tonight, for there is lightning in the west” Expanded into the syllogisn of rain; there is lightning in the west this evening; therefore, it will rain tonight” While we do not cois in this foreneralization, ”Lightning in the west is a sure sign of rain” Hence the conclusion is of doubtful validity

INDUCTION--Deduction is a valuable for, but aThe _major premise must be accounted for_ How are we able to say that all n of rain? Hoas this general truth arrived at? There is only one way, nae nuh _induction_

Induction is the eneral Many men are observed, and it is found that all who have been observed have died under a certain age It is true that not all , and many more will no doubt come and live in the world whom _we_ cannot observe, since mortality will have overtaken us before their advent To this ithave not yet lived up to the limit of their ti whose inevitable effect has always been and alill be death; likeith the anism as hose very nature necessitates eneralization is not so safe, for there have been exceptions Lightning in the west at night is not always followed by rain, nor can we find inherent causes as in the other case which necessitates rain as an effect

THE NECESSITY FOR BROAD INDUCTION--Thus it is seen that our generalizations, or rees of validity In the case of some, as the mortality of man, millions of cases have been observed and no exceptions found, but on the contrary, causes discovered whose operation renders the result inevitable In others, as, for instance, in the generalization once made, ”All cloven-footed animals chew their cud,” not only had the examination of individual cases not been carried so far as in the foreneralization wasin cloven-footed animals which make it necessary for the do not of necessity go together, and the case of the pig disproves the generalization

In practically no instance, however, is it possible for us to exaeneralization is based; after exa a sufficient nu causes, we are warranted inat once to state our generalization as a working hypothesis

Of course it is easy to see that if we have a wrong generalization, if our major pre will be worthless This fact should render us careful in eneralizations on too narrow a basis of induction We may have observed that certain red-haired people of our acquaintance are quick-teeneral statement that all red-haired people are quick-tempered Not only have we not examined a sufficient number of cases to warrant such a conclusion, but we have found in the red hair not even a cause of quick temper, but only an occasional concomitant

THE INTERRELATION OF INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION--Induction and deduction e Induction gives us the particular facts out of which our systee is built, furnishes us with the data out of which general truths are foreneralization furnished us by induction, and froe and, through the discovery of its relations, to unify it and eneral truth and asks the question, ”What new relations areparticular facts by this truth?” Induction starts with particulars, and asks the question, ”To what general truth do these separate facts lead?”

Eachneeds the other Deduction must have induction to furnish the facts for its preanize these separate facts into a unified body of knowledge ”He only sees ho sees the whole in the parts, and the parts in the whole”

7 PROBLEMS IN OBSERVATION AND INTROSPECTION

1 Watch your own thinking for examples of each of the four types described Observe a class of children in a recitation or at study and try to decide which type is being employed by each child What proportion of the tiiven over to _chance_ or idle thinking? To _assi?

2 Observe children at work in school with the purpose of deterht to _think_, or only to memorize certain facts Do you find that definitions whoseis not clear are often required of children? Which should co and application of it?

3 It is of course evident from the relation of induction and deduction that the child's naturala subject is by induction

Observe the teaching of children to determine whether inductive methods are commonly used Outline an inductive lesson in arithraphy, civics, etc

4 What concepts have you nohich you are aware are very er? What is your concept of _mountain?_ How many have you seen? Have you any concepts which you are working very hard to enrich?

5 Recall soment which you have made and which proved to be false, and see whether you can now discover rong with it Do you find the trouble to be an inadequate concept? What constitutes ”good judgment”? Did you ever”This is the base,” when it proved not to be? What was the cause of the error?

6 Can you recall any instance in which you eneralization when you had observed but few cases upon which to base your pre which followed?

7 See whether you can show that validity of reasoning rests ulti at present to increase your power of thinking?

8 How ought this chapter to help one ina better teacher? A better student?