Part 11 (1/1)

The French partnershi+p, however useful ton to pay hoainst King George III In the spring of 1782, when Louis XVI had a ton was duty-bound to celebrate ”the auspicious birth of a dauphin” and hope divine providence would ”shed its choicest blessings upon the King of France and his royal consorts and favor theht for independence, Ae in the aftermath of a successful war Thus far the new nation had no real executive branch, just a few departress For most Americans, the idea of royalty was still anathema On the other hand, at least a few Americans feared chaos and touted erous vacuuht for independence, Ae in the aftermath of a successful war Thus far the new nation had no real executive branch, just a few departress For most Americans, the idea of royalty was still anathema On the other hand, at least a few Americans feared chaos and touted erous vacuum of executive power

On May 22, 1782, Colonel Lewis Nicola of the Continental Arton that he reign as Ae diatribe, citing ”the weakness of republics” and the Continental Arress, then conjured up a benevolent ton seated splendidly on the throne ”Some people have so connected the ideas of tyranny and monarchy as to find it very difficult to separate thes are once adjusted, I believe strong argu”15 While he had roundly berated congressional ineptitude, Washi+ngton had never entertained the idea of a monarchy and was left to wonder whether Nicola was the instru His reply, sent the same day, fairly breathed with horror What makes the letter so impressive is its finality-this serpent : ”Be assured, sir, no occurrence in the course of the war has given mesuch ideas existing in the army as you have expressed and [that] I must vieith abhorrence and reprehend with severity”16 He didn't dare tell a soul about Nicola's letter, he said, lest it contaminate men's minds: ”I am much at a loss to conceive what part of ereatest mischiefs that can befall e of myself, you could not have found a person to whoreeableLet ard for your country, concern for yourself or posterity, or respect for hts from your mind” He didn't dare tell a soul about Nicola's letter, he said, lest it contaminate men's minds: ”I am much at a loss to conceive what part of ereatest mischiefs that can befall e of myself, you could not have found a person to whoreeableLet ard for your country, concern for yourself or posterity, or respect for ton set such store by this momentous letter that, for the only time in the war, he demanded proof from his aides that his response was sealed and posted Stunned, Nicola staies for broaching the taboo subject Washi+ngton set such store by this momentous letter that, for the only time in the war, he demanded proof from his aides that his response was sealed and posted Stunned, Nicola staies for broaching the taboo subject

During the suness to accept recognition of a ton College was naton seldo that he was flattered by this distinction ”I a e at Chester,” he wrote to the Reverend Willialican clergyuineas to the school-promptly used to purchase optical instru his own lack of a college education, Washi+ngton had surrounded hie of Washi+ngton College was perhaps a final way of wiping away that ancient stigree froe education, Washi+ngton had surrounded hie of Washi+ngton College was perhaps a final way of wiping away that ancient stigree fro this uneventful year, Washi+ngton sent halfhearted letters to Rochagestions that caton scoffed at rurew especially vigilant after Admiral Rodney defeated de Grasse in the Caribbean in April, sending London into a deliriuust from the British command in New York that peace talks had been opened in Paris, Washi+ngton still couldn't conquer his ingrained suspicion ”That the King will push the war as long as the nation will find men or money adoing skeptic in foreign policy, Washi+ngton denigrated the British as devoid of idealis aside ar less than ”an absolute, unequivocal admission of A skeptic in foreign policy, Washi+ngton denigrated the British as devoid of idealis aside ar less than ”an absolute, unequivocal admission of American independence,” he told Thoton was still a hot-bloodedobstinacy of the king, the wickedness of his hty pride” of the British nation After all these years of war, Washi+ngton was still a hot-bloodedobstinacy of the king, the wickedness of his hty pride” of the British nation21 Such ed conflict Such ed conflict

Afraid that his ar troops on the parade ground, demanded that his men look sharp, and barked out a steady stream of instructions: ”The commander in chief recommends to the officers to pay particular attention to the carriage of theircontributes so much to the appearance of a soldier, or so plainly indicates discipline, as an erect carriage, firm step, and steady countenance”22 He indicated his displeasure that soldiers didn't ”step boldly and freely, but short and with bent knees” He indicated his displeasure that soldiers didn't ”step boldly and freely, but short and with bent knees”23 Not only did he want his ht and snappy, but he wanted the that ” Not only did he want his ht and snappy, but he wanted theularity, convenience, and even soance should be attended to in the construction of their huts” should be attended to in the construction of their huts”24 To ton introduced a decoration that caallantry” or ”extraordinary fidelity and essential service,” soldiers would receive a purple heart-shaped cloth, to be worn over the left breast25 Since it was to be conferred on noncommissioned officers and ordinary soldiers, the decoration supplied further proof of Washi+ngton's growing egalitarian spirit during the war (After a lapse in its use, the Purple Heart was revived by presidential order in 1932, and anyone in the US Arton inaugurated the honor, fighting had largely ceased, and only isolated deaths re young aide John Laurens, who had hoped to raise black troops in the South ”Poor Laurens is no lu skir to prevent the ene the country of rice” Since it was to be conferred on noncommissioned officers and ordinary soldiers, the decoration supplied further proof of Washi+ngton's growing egalitarian spirit during the war (After a lapse in its use, the Purple Heart was revived by presidential order in 1932, and anyone in the US Arton inaugurated the honor, fighting had largely ceased, and only isolated deaths re young aide John Laurens, who had hoped to raise black troops in the South ”Poor Laurens is no lu skir to prevent the eneton didn't know that on Novened in Paris and that the A it could have wished, including recognition of independence and broad borders stretching north to the Great Lakes and west to the Mississippi Washi+ngton got a glieneral Alexander Leslie and his troops sailed from Charleston, South Carolina; a few hours later Nathanael Greene entered the city, bringing the southern war to a close Washi+ngton congratulated Greene ”on the glorious end you have put to hostilities in the southern states”27 Whenever Washi+ngton lauded Greene, his praise never contained even a twinge of envy, only un the conclusion of southern co that ”this happy change has been wrought, almost solely, by the personal abilities of Major Gen[era]l Greene” Whenever Washi+ngton lauded Greene, his praise never contained even a twinge of envy, only un the conclusion of southern co that ”this happy change has been wrought, almost solely, by the personal abilities of Major Gen[era]l Greene”28 This rosey outcoton had shown early in the hen Greene had blundered at Fort Washi+ngton and another coht have lost all confidence in hiton had shown early in the hen Greene had blundered at Fort Washi+ngton and another coht have lost all confidence in him

What should have been a joyous ton turned into a troubled one The national treasury had again run e failed to make their requisite payton sensed deep discontent roiling his troops Suddenly reluctant to leave theh, he relinquished his cherished hope of returning to Mount Vernon At first he even declined to ask Martha to h he relented and she arrived in December ”The teressman in mid-November, ”and has become more irritable than at any period since the co himself for disturbances, he vowed to stick close to his men and ”try like a careful physician to prevent if possible the disorders getting to an incurable height” Girding himself for disturbances, he vowed to stick close to his men and ”try like a careful physician to prevent if possible the disorders getting to an incurable height”30 Sitting in his sobund Newburgh quarters, Washi+ngton wouldn't hear about the provisional peace treaty until February In the meantime, he knew the time ”will pass heavily on in this dreary mansion in which we are fast locked by frost and snow”31 Affected by the frigid weather and isolation of Newburgh, Washi+ngton sounded a somber note in his letters He wrote to General Heath, ”Without a another winter (I hope it will be the last that I shall be kept froed and dreary id weather and isolation of Newburgh, Washi+ngton sounded a somber note in his letters He wrote to General Heath, ”Without a another winter (I hope it will be the last that I shall be kept froed and dreary mountains”32 The army's sullen discontent revolved around the sahout the war As he recounted the, ”The arreat part of the soldiery without shi+rts And tho[ugh] the patience of them is equally threadbare, the states seem perfectly indifferent to their cries”33 The soldiers were so famished that when local vendors peddled produce at their huts, they often plundered these siton couldn't locate forage for his starving horses, co at Christmas that they ”have been four days without a handful of hay and three of the sarain” The soldiers were so famished that when local vendors peddled produce at their huts, they often plundered these siton couldn't locate forage for his starving horses, co at Christmas that they ”have been four days without a handful of hay and three of the saeous situation was that officers canceled business that could be conducted only on horseback and found it iton at headquarters The upshot of this outrageous situation was that officers canceled business that could be conducted only on horseback and found it iton at headquarters

Dissatisfaction in the ranks was only sharpened by talk of de the army, which was rattled by the possible outbreak of peace As long as soldiers reether, they shared a common sense of purpose; once sent home, they would contrast their own impecunious state with that of the well-fed civilian population As Washi+ngton explained to General Benjamin Lincoln, they were ”about to be turned into the world, soured by penury and what they call the ingratitude of the public, involved in debts, without one farthing of money to carry the was that it steer rations that, even when entertaining French officers, they could offer little etables” Whatwas that it steer rations that, even when entertaining French officers, they could offer little etables”36 Many doubted they would receive years of back pay owed to thee to provide veterans with half pay for life Washi+ngton wondered darkly ould happen if the officers who had suppressed previous mutinies turned mutinous themselves Many doubted they would receive years of back pay owed to thee to provide veterans with half pay for life Washi+ngton wondered darkly ould happen if the officers who had suppressed previous mutinies turned mutinous themselves

As he dealt with this discontent, Washi+ngton again had to deal with his disgruntled ton had written to apprise him that the overseer at her Little Falls Quarter far all the profits for hie no less upset than his mother As he told brother Jack, he had maintained this place for her with ”no earthly inducement to meddle with it, but to comply with her wish and to free her from care,” but he hadn't received a penny in return He protested that it was ”tooin every other way (and hardly able to keep my own estate from sale), to be saddled with all the expense of hers and not be able to derive the smallest return from it”37 This parenthetical stateain-reveals the dreadful toll that his neglected business interests had taken on his personal fortune This parenthetical stateain-reveals the dreadful toll that his neglected business interests had taken on his personal fortune

After asking Jack to stop by Little Falls to replace the overseer, Washi+ngtonfurther of their inia assembly But it turned out that Mary was still up to her old antics and broadcasting her financial grievances to anyone who cared to listen As Washi+ngton worried anew that she would blacken his reputation, his repressed anger toward her, long tamped down, spilled out He told his brother that he had learned ”froood authority that she is upon all occasions and in all co of the hardness of the times, of her wants and distresses; and if not in direct ter favors which not only makes her her appear in an unfavorable point of view, but appear in an unfavorable point of view, but those those also who are connected with her” also who are connected with her”38 As soton was crestfallen by Mary's unending torrent of abuse, and he dispatched Jack on a private mission to visit her and ”inquire into her real wants and see what is necessary to uarded his reputation, Washi+ngton was crestfallen by Mary's unending torrent of abuse, and he dispatched Jack on a private mission to visit her and ”inquire into her real wants and see what is necessary to ton was ready to pay what she needed, but he demanded that she halt the character assassination: ”I wish you to represent to her in delicate terms the impropriety of her complaints and acceptance of favors, even where they are voluntarily offered, froton was ready to pay what she needed, but he demanded that she halt the character assassination: ”I wish you to represent to her in delicate terms the impropriety of her complaints and acceptance of favors, even where they are voluntarily offered, fro mother and son were locked in a fierce contest of wills in which both sides refused to yield an inch As always, the headstrong mother and son were locked in a fierce contest of wills in which both sides refused to yield an inch

Around this tihtly blurry and that it cleared when he borrowed spectacles fro this long war, and the eyestrain caused by reading his copious correspondence had been enorlasses from David Rittenhouse of Philadelphia, a renowned astronoton sampled the lenses of various people, then asked Rittenhouse to duplicate the ones that worked best By lasses in hand but had to keep tilting theles until his eyes adjusted to the novel experience ”At present, I find so at the proper focus,” he infornify properly and show those objects very distinctly which at first appear like a ether and confused”41 Little did Rittenhouse know, as he fashi+oned these spectacles, that they would soon serve as a key prop in one of the ed scenes in American history Little did Rittenhouse know, as he fashi+oned these spectacles, that they would soon serve as a key prop in one of the ed scenes in American history

IN EARLY JANUARY, aation of officers went to Philadelphia to lay before Congress a petition that catalogued their pent-up grievances: ”We have borne all that men can bear-our property is expended-our private resources are at an end”42 This delegation ress: Jainia, a member since 1780, and Alexander Haress a little more than a month earlier However alarmed by the prospect of an officer ht represent a handy lever hich to budge a lethargic Congress froation ress: Jainia, a member since 1780, and Alexander Haress a little more than a month earlier However alarmed by the prospect of an officer ht represent a handy lever hich to budge a lethargic Congress fro to expanded federal powers

On February 13 Haton in a candid tone that presupposed that a profound understanding still existed between them He talked of the critical state of Aested that the officer revolt could be helpful: ”The claied with moderation but with firmness, may operate on those weak minds which are influenced by their apprehensions rather than their judg co army within the bounds of esting that Washi+ngton exploit the situation to influence Congress, Hamilton toyed with combustible cheton by telling hi that he didn't stand up for their rights with sufficient zeal ”The falsehood of this opinion no one can be better acquainted with than myself,” Hamilton e false” In suggesting that Washi+ngton exploit the situation to influence Congress, Hamilton toyed with combustible cheton by telling hi that he didn't stand up for their rights with sufficient zeal ”The falsehood of this opinion no one can be better acquainted with than myself,” Hamilton e false”44 On March 4 Washi+ngton sent Harave premonitions about the crisis ”It has been the subject of s of a coress and tardiness of the states on the other, are the forebodings of evil”45 He voiced concern at Aht and told of his periodic frustration at being excluded froed powers, he maintained, revolutionary blood would have been spilled in vain After spelling out areas of agreeton said he refused to deviate from the ”steady line of conduct” he had pursued and insisted that the ”sensible and discerning” officers would listen to reason He also asserted that any atteht only ”excite jealousy and bring on its concoht and told of his periodic frustration at being excluded froed powers, he maintained, revolutionary blood would have been spilled in vain After spelling out areas of agreeton said he refused to deviate from the ”steady line of conduct” he had pursued and insisted that the ”sensible and discerning” officers would listen to reason He also asserted that any atteht only ”excite jealousy and bring on its concoton refused to pander to any political agenda, even one he agreed with, and he would never encroach upon the civilian prerogatives of Congress In a later letter Washi+ngton was even blunter with Ha him that soldiers weren't ”erous instruton refused to pander to any political agenda, even one he agreed with, and he would never encroach upon the civilian prerogatives of Congress In a later letter Washi+ngton was even blunter with Ha him that soldiers weren't ”erous instrument to play with”47 The officers continued to believe that Philadelphia politicians re that they would soon resort to eneral orders for March 10, he dwelt on athe troops Then he learned of an anony officers to a rievances-a brazen affront to Washi+ngton's authority and, to his hta sense of injustice Its anony, Jr, an aide-de-camp to Horatio Gates, who mocked the peaceful petitions drawn up by the officers and warned that, corow old in poverty, wretchedness, and conte stripped of their weapons by an are the milk and water style of your last memorial-assume a bolder toneAnd suspect the er forbearance” Before being stripped of their weapons by an are the milk and water style of your last memorial-assume a bolder toneAnd suspect the er forbearance”49 The ton When handed a copy of thisthat ”in point of coance and force of expression” it had ”rarely been equaled in the English language” The ton When handed a copy of thisthat ”in point of coance and force of expression” it had ”rarely been equaled in the English language”50 That only , for it aroused the prospect of a , for it aroused the prospect of a ton banned the outlawthethat their good sense would lead theular invitation”51 Instead of negating their grievances, he tried to champion and divert the at noon on March 15 Suspicious of how quickly events had ton voiced his fears to Haentleh camp, he said, and told the officers that public creditors would support their uarantee repayested that certain congress delinquent states into paying proovernton accusing Ha the plot from Philadelphia Rather, he exhorted him to take ti that ht be clapped into debtors' prisons upon release from the arton forewarned, would plunge the country ”into a gulf of civil horror fro their grievances, he tried to champion and divert the at noon on March 15 Suspicious of how quickly events had ton voiced his fears to Haentleh camp, he said, and told the officers that public creditors would support their uarantee repayested that certain congress delinquent states into paying proovernton accusing Ha the plot from Philadelphia Rather, he exhorted him to take ti that ht be clapped into debtors' prisons upon release from the arton forewarned, would plunge the country ”into a gulf of civil horror fro, Washi+ngton waited a few days to allow cooler heads to prevail For its venue, he chose the sa, a new building nicknamed the Temple of Virtue, a cavernous wooden structure completed a s Although this ton's auspices, he was not expected to attend, heightening the drah a side door into the packed hall It was one of the infrequent occasions when his self-control cruitated”53 It was the first and only titon ever confronted a hostile asse the podiu sheets covered with excla sense of cadence he gave to his speeches He began by chastising the officers for i and disputed that Congress was indifferent to their plight, stressing the need for ility, he cast aside the stern tone and stressed his personal bond with his fellow officers, speaking as a h repetition: If my conduct heretofore has not evinced to you that I have been a faithful friend to the army, my declaration of it at this ti and i the first who embarked in the cause of our common country As I have never left your side one moment, but when called from you on public duty As I have been the constant co the last to feel and acknowledge your meritsit can scarcely be supposed scarcely be supposed at this late stage of the war that I ae of the war that I a hiton portrayed hi softened them up with personal history, he delivered an impassioned appeal to their deep-seated patriotism The idea floated by the anonyainst their country ”has so in it that humanity revolts at the idea My God! What can this writer have in view by reco such measures? Can he be a friend to the army? Can he be a friend to this country? Rather, is he not an insidious foe? So the ruin of both by sowing the seeds of discord and separation between the civil and military powers of the continent?”55 He pleaded with theates of civil discord and deluge our rising erievances, he i in his power to help theress to take action, ”you will, by the dignity of your conduct, afford occasion for posterity to say, when speaking of the glorious exa, the world had never seen the last stage of perfection to which huress a chance to address your grievances, he i in his power to help theress to take action, ”you will, by the dignity of your conduct, afford occasion for posterity to say, when speaking of the glorious exa, the world had never seen the last stage of perfection to which hu'”57 It was an exemplary perfor He had castigated his officers but also lifted the a sense of their exalted role in the Revolution and reacy For all his eloquence, Washi+ngton achieved his greatest iesture To reassure the ood faith, he read aloud a letter froinia and tripped over the first few sentences because he couldn't discern the words Then he pulled out his new spectacles, shocking his fellow officers: they had never seen hilasses ”Gentleray in your service and now find nant words exerted a powerful influence Washi+ngton at fifty-one wasplanter who had taken charge of the Continental Arlasses endary sacrifices he had made for his country When he left the hall moments later, the threatened mutiny had ended, and his victory was co they ”reciprocated [Washi+ngton's] affectionate expressions with the greatest sincerity of which the hunant words exerted a powerful influence Washi+ngton at fifty-one wasplanter who had taken charge of the Continental Arlasses endary sacrifices he had made for his country When he left the hall moments later, the threatened mutiny had ended, and his victory was co they ”reciprocated [Washi+ngton's] affectionate expressions with the greatest sincerity of which the huress delivered on Washi+ngton's proranted the officers payment equal to five years of full pay The threat of a ton's succinct but brilliant, well-titon's proranted the officers payment equal to five years of full pay The threat of a ton's succinct but brilliant, well-timed oratory

Making good on his pledges, Washi+ngton wrote iress on behalf of the officers' finances In one to Joseph Jones, he said that Congress shouldn't rely on hiain to ”dispel other clouds, if any should arise, from the causes of the last”60 Perhaps he sensed that a deity couldn't step down fro his mystique He had taressional supremacy in the nick of time A few days later he received word that a prelined in Paris Into a forht years after the first shots rang out in Lexington and Concord Perhaps he sensed that a deity couldn't step down fro his mystique He had taressional supremacy in the nick of time A few days later he received word that a prelined in Paris Into a forht years after the first shots rang out in Lexington and Concord

Thethe most powerful h quietly elated and relieved, he was neither intoxicated by power nor puffed up with a sense of his own genius On April 15 a Jah headquarters and was aood, but everything was quite plain We all sat on caton] was as plain, easy, and affable as [the general] was and one would have thought from the familiarity which prevailed here that he saw a respectable private gentleton shunned the conqueror's bravado ”In his dress he was perfectly plain-an old blue coat faced with buff, waistcoat and britchesseee and without any lace upon them composed his dress,” the visitor wrote ”His shi+rt had no ruffles at the wrists, but [was] of very fine linenHis hair is a little gray and combed smoothly back from the forehead and in a small queue-no curls and but very little powder to it Such is the man, but his character I cannot presuhest veneration over the whole continent” Washi+ngton shunned the conqueror's bravado ”In his dress he was perfectly plain-an old blue coat faced with buff, waistcoat and britchesseee and without any lace upon them composed his dress,” the visitor wrote ”His shi+rt had no ruffles at the wrists, but [was] of very fine linenHis hair is a little gray and combed smoothly back from the forehead and in a small queue-no curls and but very little powder to it Such is the man, but his character I cannot presuhest veneration over the whole continent”62

CHAPTER THIRTY-SIX

Closing the Draton had visibly aged, as evidenced by his gray hair and failing eyesight ”He was fine-looking until three years ago,” an aide to Rocha that ”those who have been constantly with hirown old fast” 1 1 It could only have saddened a in to ebb One great blow to Washi+ngton's sense of well-being was the steady deterioration of his teeth While in the eyes of posterity his dental proble he could to screen the trouble from contes with dentists, as if he were dabbling in a dark, sha could subvert his heroic iers about his teeth It could only have saddened a in to ebb One great blow to Washi+ngton's sense of well-being was the steady deterioration of his teeth While in the eyes of posterity his dental proble he could to screen the trouble from contes with dentists, as if he were dabbling in a dark, sha could subvert his heroic iers about his teeth

As early as the French and Indian War, Washi+ngton had had a tooth pulled, and thereafter his papers are replete with allusions to dental tribulations Froe” toothbrushes and bottles of tincture designed to soothe toothaches A typical co tooth and swelled and infla to chew meals His customary solution was to pull troublesoesses, he kept busy a Williaton in 1779, the observant Charles Willson Peale spotted an indentation just below Washi+ngton's left cheekbone, the by-product of an abscessed tooth By 1773 he found it agonizing to chew meals His customary solution was to pull troublesoesses, he kept busy a Williaton in 1779, the observant Charles Willson Peale spotted an indentation just below Washi+ngton's left cheekbone, the by-product of an abscessed tooth

By 1781 Washi+ngton had partial dentures made with a bone and ivory fraether by a pri south to Yorktown, he wrote with so for ”a pair of pincers to fasten the wire of my teeth” and also ”one of your scrapers, as ” 3 3 At this point Washi+ngton had a s order In a secret, locked drawer of his desk at Mount Vernon, he preserved a pair of pulled teeth and not long before the Newburgh mutiny asked Lund to wrap the His objective was to have Dr Baker insert thee; the dentist was to send him plaster of paris or some other powder to create a model of his mouth When this letter was intercepted by the British, it occasioned soton in considerable distress The episode could only have strengthened his self-consciousness about his dental probleton had a s order In a secret, locked drawer of his desk at Mount Vernon, he preserved a pair of pulled teeth and not long before the Newburgh mutiny asked Lund to wrap the His objective was to have Dr Baker insert thee; the dentist was to send him plaster of paris or some other powder to create a model of his mouth When this letter was intercepted by the British, it occasioned soton in considerable distress The episode could only have strengthened his self-consciousness about his dental problems

As it turned out, deliverance lay at hand in the person of an eminent French dentist, Dr Jean-Pierre Le Mayeur, who had worked in occupied New York, treating Sir Henry Clinton and other British generals One day a British officerremark about the French alliance with Anantly to his country's defense, ending the honey established his patriotic credentials, Dr Le Mayeur passed over to the Aton was eager to consult the Frenchman, ”of whose skill much has been said,” but he wanted thehis interorically that ”I would not wish that this s, Washi+ngton deation of this e of his profession” before he opened up his s, Washi+ngton deation of this e of his profession” before he opened up his ton consulted the urbane Le Mayeur in confidence at Newburgh, he handled their relationshi+p as furtively as if he wereof the French him La Moyuer at one point, as if he dared not check the spelling with a potentially indiscreet third party) Evidently, the dentist agreed to craft a pair of partial dentures Washi+ngton responded with an elliptical letter that resorted to euphe such explosive words as dental dental or or dentures dentures in case unfriendly eyes stumbled upon it ”The valise arrived safe, as did the three articles which accoton wrote cryptically ”The sinia are not yet received, and it is to be feared will never be found” in case unfriendly eyes stumbled upon it ”The valise arrived safe, as did the three articles which accoton wrote cryptically ”The sinia are not yet received, and it is to be feared will never be found”6 Always a tough, leery custoton was skeptical about clai year, when Le Mayeur performed a successful transplant upon Richard Varick, itto Mary Thoht nine teeth in 1784 fros apiece7 Whether he wanted the teeth implanted directly in his houlish this trade sounds to modern readers, it was then standard practice for rich people to purchase teeth from the poor In his advertise vendors and bid ”three guineas for good front teeth from anyone but slaves” Whether he wanted the teeth implanted directly in his houlish this trade sounds to modern readers, it was then standard practice for rich people to purchase teeth from the poor In his advertise vendors and bid ”three guineas for good front teeth fro white people about having slaves' teeth We can deduce that Washi+ngton's dental transplant uration in 1789, he had only a single working tooth re white people about having slaves' teeth We can deduce that Washi+ngton's dental transplant uration in 1789, he had only a single working tooth reton announced the cessation of hostilities between America and Great Britain and seemed to pinch himself onder as he evoked ”the alh] which we have passed with a ratitude”9 The nor caution to the winds, rhapsodized about A of the patriotic soldiers who had wrested freedom from Great Britain that ”happy, thrice happy shall they be pronounced hereafterin erecting this stupendous The nor caution to the winds, rhapsodized about A of the patriotic soldiers who had wrested freedom from Great Britain that ”happy, thrice happy shall they be pronounced hereafterin erecting this stupendous fabric of freedom and empire fabric of freedom and empire on the broad basis of independenceand establishi+ng an asyluions” on the broad basis of independenceand establishi+ng an asyluions”10 As alhen casting events in grandiose historical ter now rehty scene to preserve a perfect, unvarying consistency of character through the very last act” and then ”close the drarandiose historical ter now rehty scene to preserve a perfect, unvarying consistency of character through the very last act” and then ”close the draton ordered his quarterin sending soldiers honed thousands of these docuesture, which spoke volumes about the affection and eton ordered his quarterin sending soldiers honed thousands of these docuesture, which spoke volumes about the affection and e to abandon his coned and the British had evacuated New York, Washi+ngton still had no firinia He had to cope with nettlesome racial issues, as the armistice reopened questions about the status of former slaves When a slaveholder na in the Third Massachusetts Regiton shunted the matter to a board of inquiry, which ruled that the soldier in question hadn't yet served out his tered the deeper issue of whether a slave itive slave in the Continental Ares fro about the fate of slaves who had dashed to freedouard ”Although I have several servants in like predicainia slaveholder, ”I have not yetthe war, encouraged by the idealistic catonslavery Now the war's ient practical matter Deeply ambivalent, he straddled both sides of the issue That April, when Governor Benjainia sent him a list of his slaves who had defected to the British side, Washi+ngton forwarded it to a Daniel Parker, as deputized to recapture thened a cavalier indifference toward the fate of his own slaves who had found refuge aboard the Savage Savage ”I scarce ever bestowed a thought on theh which they can escape fro but an inclination to return or voluntarily surrender of themselves will restore ht years of fighting for freedoitive slaves? Did that clash with the way he had presented himself as a potential abolitionist in warti aides? When he contacted Parker in late April, Washi+ngton expressed skepticis no doubt he yearned for their recapture: ”If by chance you should coed by your securing theton, after eight years of fighting for freedoitive slaves? Did that clash with the way he had presented himself as a potential abolitionist in warti aides? When he contacted Parker in late April, Washi+ngton expressed skepticis no doubt he yearned for their recapture: ”If by chance you should coed by your securing theton had opened a civilized correspondence with Sir Guy Carleton about enforcing the peace treaty No vengeance was apparent in Washi+ngton's letters, only a hu to retire any residual bitterness This goodas soon threatened by the fate of three thousand escaped slaves in New York,out a desperate existence as they squatted in camps of makeshi+ft huts roofed with sailcloth The city swarmed with slave catchers hired by southern masters to nab runaway slaves before they left aboard British shi+ps Even though one article of the peace treaty stipulated that Americans would be allowed to reclai these black refugees, clai they had won their freedo, he issued three thousand certificates to protect the for it a cri pressure fro with Carleton in early May at his own temporary headquarters on the Hudson River at Tappan, New York Although they also discussed prisoner exchanges and evacuating British posts, slavery forton conducted hiate Perseverance Perseverance by the river, then proceeding with hiabled house with beaht fever, Carleton sat tall and rarity In their talks, Washi+ngton's deravely cordial, and one of Carleton's aides said that he ”delivered hireat slowness, and a low tone of voice” by the river, then proceeding with hiabled house with beaht fever, Carleton sat tall and rarity In their talks, Washi+ngton's deravely cordial, and one of Carleton's aides said that he ”delivered hireat slowness, and a low tone of voice”15 Refusing to shrink froton said he intended to take possession ”of all negroes and other property of the inhabitants of these states” being held by the British16 When Carleton retorted that he had just evacuated six thousand people froton bridled at this apparent violation of the treaty ”Already embarked!” he exclaimed When Carleton retorted that he had just evacuated six thousand people froton bridled at this apparent violation of the treaty ”Already embarked!” he exclaiton as derossness and ferocity of a captain of banditti” One internal Britishthe slaves' return ”with all the grossness and ferocity of a captain of banditti”18 Although Washi+ngton didn't know it at the ti protected by the British A forton had escaped from Mount Vernon in 1776 and would ultiricultural techniques learned froton Of the seventeen slaves who found refuge on the Although Washi+ngton didn't know it at the ti protected by the British A forton had escaped from Mount Vernon in 1776 and would ultiricultural techniques learned froton Of the seventeen slaves who found refuge on the Savage Savage in 1781, Washi+ngton regained two of the women at Yorktown and at least six of the ained two of the women at Yorktown and at least six of the round, the honorable Carleton insisted that the British would not renege on wartime promises to free slaves who had joined their ranks and stated with memorable certitude that ”the national honorthe for them up, some possibly to execution and others to severe punishment, which in his opinion would be a dishonorable violation of the public faith pledged to the Negroes in the procla them up, some possibly to execution and others to severe punishment, which in his opinion would be a dishonorable violation of the public faith pledged to the Negroes in the proclah they didn't say so openly, the British feared that soe Trepidation was raht of returning to their masters ”This dreadful ruuish and terror,” said a young black carpenter na, ”especiallyour old inia, North Carolina, and other parts and seizing upon their slaves in the streets of New York or even dragging them out of their beds”21 Carleton claied not to Carleton claied not to carry off carry off slaves but never promised to slaves but never promised to restore restore the the owners of slaves who had fled after hostilities ended and claiister of forton insisted that slaves would give false nareed to naers boarding shi+ps in New York, although Washi+ngton doubted that former slaves would ever be reclaientle that it was near dinner time, offered wine and bitters,” recalled Carleton's aide ”We all walked out and soon after were called to [a] plentiful repast under a tent” the the owners of slaves who had fled after hostilities ended and claiister of forton insisted that slaves would give false nareed to naers boarding shi+ps in New York, although Washi+ngton doubted that former slaves would ever be reclaientle that it was near dinner time, offered wine and bitters,” recalled Carleton's aide ”We all walked out and soon after were called to [a] plentiful repast under a tent”22 In the after, the British refused to water down Carleton's noble stand, and King George III indicated ”his royal approbation” in ”the fullest and , the British refused to water down Carleton's noble stand, and King George III indicated ”his royal approbation” in ”the fullest andthe American commissioners in New York City found that they could only watch for shi+ps and lacked any power to detain the the American commissioners in New York City found that they could only watch for shi+ps and lacked any power to detain them

AS WAshi+NGTON CONTEMPLATED the postorld and wondered how to make America happy, free, and powerful, he was uniquely well positioned to affect the outconment in Europe, while Hamilton and Madison were too junior to assuton had eli his stature un-equaled Since the Continental Army had suffered ton was a natural proponent of national unity and worried about anarchy and bloodshed erupting in the war's afterainst European interference, needed to band together in a ress required an independent revenue source to service wartime debt

The prospect of peace posed exceptional challenges for Washi+ngton Throughout the war, he had scrupulously respected congressional supre his political opinions to private correspondence By serving as a blank slate onto which Americans could project their values, he had been able to unify the country and enhance his oer Now, as he returned to the status of a private citizen, those inhibitions were lifted, and he did not kno far to go in articulating his views openly His instincts were the antithesis of a deonized over exerting too much power On March 31 he broached this dile that his private letters ”teemed” with opinions about political reforht be productive of the wished for end, or appear to arrogate s to me, depends so much upon popular opinion and the temper and disposition of [the] people that it is not easy to decide”24 A major unresolved issue hether he should cast off the burdens of public life and return to private citizenshi+p Writing to Lafayette, he sounded as if heA major unresolved issue hether he should cast off the burdens of public life and return to private citizenshi+p Writing to Lafayette, he sounded as if heHamlet, Hamlet, he stated that henceforth ”lide down the stream of life 'till I come to that abyss from whence no traveler is permitted to return” he stated that henceforth ”lide down the stream of life 'till I come to that abyss from whence no traveler is perthy valedictory state the newborn country In this ”Circular to State Governed emphatically from behind his pose of military neutrality and advised the citizenry in an al docuacy,” codified his views no less memorably than his later farewell address Reprinted in newspapers and later excerpted in countless school textbooks, it gained a wide readershi+p So that the circular wouldn't ston started out by reassuring readers that he was about to retire from public life and ”pass the remainder of life in a state of undisturbed repose”26 This pledge gave hi any political a an oracular note, he envisioned a vibrant future for America: ”The citizens of America, placed in the most enviable condition, as th