Volume I Part 14 (1/2)
It is self-evident that _active migrations_ play the chief part in animals able to move freely. The more freely an animal's organization permits it to all move in directions, the more easily the animal species can migrate, and the more rapidly it will spread over the earth.
_Flying_ animals are of course most favoured in this respect, among vertebrate animals especially birds, and among articulated animals, insects. These two cla.s.ses, as soon as they came into existence, can have more easily spread over the whole earth than any other animal, and this fact partly explains the extraordinary uniformity of structure which characterizes these two great cla.s.ses of animals. For, although they contain an exceedingly large number of different species, and although the insect cla.s.s alone is said to possess more different species than all other cla.s.ses of animals together, yet all the innumerable species of insects, and in like manner, also, the different species of birds, agree most strikingly in all essential peculiarities of their organization. Hence, in the cla.s.s of insects, as well as in that of birds, we can distinguish only a very small number of large natural groups or orders, and these few orders differ but very little from one another in their internal structure. The orders of birds with their numerous species are not nearly as distinct from one another as the orders of the mammalian cla.s.s, containing much fewer species; and the orders of insects, which are extremely rich in genera and species, resemble one another much more closely in their internal structure than do the much smaller orders of the crab cla.s.s. The general parallelism between birds and insects is also very interesting in relation to systematic zoology; and the great importance of their richness in forms, for scientific morphology, lies in the fact that they show us how, within the narrowest anatomical sphere, and without profound changes of the essential internal organization, the greatest variety in external bodily forms can be attained. The reason of this is evidently their flying mode of life and their free locomotion. In consequence of this birds, as well as insects, have spread very rapidly over the whole surface of the earth, have settled in all possible localities inaccessible to other animals, and variously modified their specific form by superficial adaptation to particular local relations.
Next to the flying animals, those animals, of course, have spread most quickly and furthest which were next best able to migrate, that is, the best runners among the inhabitants of the land, and the best swimmers among the inhabitants of the water. However, the power of such active migrations is not confined to those animals which throughout life enjoy free locomotion. For the fixed animals also, such as corals, tubicolous worms, sea-squirts, lily encrinites, sea-acorns, barnacles, and many other lower animals which adhere to seaweeds, stones, etc., enjoy, at least at an early period of life, free locomotion. They all migrate before they adhere to anything. Their first free locomotive condition of early life is generally that of a ”ciliated” larva, a roundish, cellular corpuscle, which, by means of a garb of movable ”flimmer-hairs,” (Latin, ”cilia”) swarms about in the water and bears the name of Planula.
But the power of free locomotion, and hence, also, of active migration, is not confined to animals alone, but many plants likewise enjoy it.
Many lower aquatic plants, especially the cla.s.s of the Tangles (Algae), swim about freely in the water in early life, like the lower animals just mentioned, by means of a vibratile hairy coat, a vibrating whip, or a covering of tremulous fringes, and only at a later period adhere to objects. Even in the case of many higher plants, which we designate as creepers and climbing plants, we may speak of active migration. Their elongated stalks and perennial roots creep or climb during their long process of growth to new positions, and by means of their widespread branches they acquire new habitations, to which they attach themselves by buds, and bring forth new colonies of individuals of their species.
Influential as these active migrations of most animals and many plants are, yet alone they would by no means be sufficient to explain the chorology of organisms. _Pa.s.sive migrations_ have ever been by far the more important, and of far greater influence, in the case of most plants and in that of many animals. Such pa.s.sive changes of locality are produced by extremely numerous causes. Air and water in their eternal motion, wind and waves with their manifold currents, play the chief part. The wind in all places and at all times raises light organisms, small animals and plants, but especially their young germs, animal eggs and plant seeds, and carries them far over land and seas. Where they fall into the water they are seized by currents or waves and carried to other places. It is well known, from numerous examples, how far in many cases trunks of trees, hard sh.e.l.led fruits, and other not readily perishable portions of plants are carried away from their original home by the course of rivers and by the currents of the sea. Trunks of palm trees from the West Indies are brought by the Gulf Stream to the British and Norwegian coasts. All large rivers bring down driftwood from the mountains, and frequently alpine plants are carried from their home at the source of the river into the plains, and even further, down to the sea. Frequently numerous inhabitants live between the roots of the plants thus carried down, and between the branches of the trees thus washed away there are various inhabitants which have to take part in the pa.s.sive migration. The bark of the tree is covered with mosses, lichens, and parasitic insects. Other insects, spiders, etc., even small reptiles and mammals, are hidden within the hollow trunk or cling to the branches. In the earth adhering to the fibres of the roots, in the dust lying in the cracks of the bark, there are innumerable germs of smaller animals and plants. Now, if the trunk thus washed away lands safely on a foreign sh.o.r.e or on a distant island, the guests who had to take part in the involuntary voyage can leave their boat and settle in the new country. A very remarkable kind of water-transport is formed by the floating icebergs which annually become loosened from the eternal ice of the Polar Sea. Although these cold regions are thinly peopled, yet many of their inhabitants, who were accidentally upon an iceberg while it was becoming loosened, are carried away with it by the currents, and landed on warmer sh.o.r.es. In this manner, by means of loosened blocks of ice from the northern Polar Sea, often whole populations of small animals and plants have been carried to the northern sh.o.r.es of Europe and America. Nay, even polar foxes and polar bears have been carried in this way to Iceland and to the British Isles.
Transport by air is no less important than transport by water in this matter of pa.s.sive migration. The dust covering our streets and roofs, the earth lying on dry fields and dried-up pools, the light moist soil of forests, in short, the whole surface of the globe contains millions of small organisms and their germs. Many of these small animals and plants can without injury become completely dried up, and awake again to life as soon as they are moistened. Every gust of wind raises up with the dust innumerable little creatures of this kind, and often carries them away to other places miles off. But even larger organisms, and especially their germs, may often make distant pa.s.sive journeys through the air. The seeds of many plants are provided with light feathery processes, which act as parachutes and facilitate their flight in the air, and prevent their falling. Spiders make journeys of many miles through the air on their fine filaments, their so-called gossamer threads. Young frogs are frequently raised by whirlwinds into the air by thousands, and fall down in a distant part as a ”shower of frogs.”
Storms may carry birds and insects across half the earth's circ.u.mference. They drop in the United States, having risen in England.
Starting from California, they only come to rest in China. But, again, many other organisms may make the journey from one continent to another together with the birds and insects. Of course all parasites, the number of which is legion, fleas, lice, mites, moulds, etc., migrate with the organisms upon which they live. In the earth which often remains sticking to the claws of birds there are also small animals and plants or their germs. Thus the voluntary or involuntary migration of a single larger organism may carry a whole small flora and fauna from one part of the earth to another.
Besides the means of transport here mentioned, there are many others which explain the distribution of animal and vegetable species over the large tracts of the earth's surface, and especially the general distribution of the so-called cosmopolitan species. But these alone would not nearly be sufficient to explain all chorological facts. How is it, for example, that many inhabitants of fresh water live in various rivers or lakes far away and quite apart from one another? How is it that many inhabitants of mountains, which cannot exist in plains, are found upon entirely separated and far distant chains of mountains? It is difficult to believe, and in many cases quite inconceivable, that these inhabitants of fresh water should have in any way, actively or pa.s.sively, migrated over the land lying between the lakes, or that the inhabitants of mountains in any way, actively or pa.s.sively, crossed the plains lying between their mountain homes. But here geology comes to our help, as a mighty ally, and completely solves these difficult problems for us.
The history of the earth's development shows us that the distribution of land and water on its surface is ever and continually changing. In consequence of geological changes of the earth's crust, _elevations_ and _depressions_ of the ground take place everywhere, sometimes more strongly marked in one place, sometimes in another. Even if they happen so slowly that in the course of centuries the seash.o.r.e rises or sinks only a few inches, or even only a few lines, still they nevertheless effect great results in the course of long periods of time. And long-immeasurably long-periods of time have not been wanting in the earth's history. During the course of many millions of years, ever since organic life existed on the earth, land and water have perpetually struggled for supremacy. Continents and islands have sunk into the sea, and new ones have arisen out of its bosom. Lakes and seas have slowly been raised and dried up, and new water basins have arisen by the sinking of the ground. Peninsulas have become islands by the narrow neck of land which connected them with the mainland sinking into the water.
The islands of an archipelago have become the peaks of a continuous chain of mountains by the whole floor of their sea being considerably raised.
Thus the Mediterranean at one time was an inland sea, when, in the place of the Straits of Gibraltar, an isthmus connected Africa with Spain.
England, even during the more recent history of the earth, when man already existed, has repeatedly been connected with the European continent and been repeatedly separated from it. Nay, even Europe and North America have been directly connected. The South Sea at one time formed a large Pacific Continent, and the numerous little islands which now lie scattered in it were simply the highest peaks of the mountains covering that continent. The Indian Ocean formed a continent which extended from the Sunda Islands along the southern coast of Asia to the east coast of Africa. This large continent of former times Sclater, an Englishman, has called _Lemuria_, from the monkey-like animals which inhabited it, and it is at the same time of great importance from being the probable cradle of the human race, which in all likelihood here first developed out of anthropoid apes. The important proof which Alfred Wallace has furnished,(36) by the help of chorological facts, that the present Malayan Archipelago consists in reality of two completely different divisions, is particularly interesting. The western division, the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, comprising the large islands of Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, was formerly connected by Malacca with the Asiatic continent, and probably also with the Lemurian continent just mentioned.
The eastern division, on the other hand, the Austro-Malayan Archipelago, comprising Celebes, the Moluccas, New Guinea, Solomon's Islands, etc., was formerly directly connected with Australia. Both divisions were formerly two continents separated by a strait, but they have now for the most part sunk below the level of the sea. Wallace, solely on the ground of his accurate chorological observations, has been able in the most acute manner to determine the position of this former strait, the south end of which pa.s.ses between Balij and Lombok.
Thus, ever since liquid water existed on the earth, the boundaries of water and land have eternally changed, and we may a.s.sert that the outlines of continents and islands have never remained for an hour, nay, even for a minute, exactly the same. For the waves eternally and perpetually break on the edge of the coast, and whatever the land in these places loses in extent, it gains in other places by the acc.u.mulation of mud, which condenses into solid stone and again rises above the level of the sea as new land. Nothing can be more erroneous than the idea of a firm and unchangeable outline of our continents, such as is impressed upon us in early youth by defective lessons on geography, which are devoid of a geological basis.
I need hardly draw attention to the fact that these geological changes of the earth's surface have ever been exceedingly important to the migrations of organisms, and consequently to their Chorology. From them we learn to understand how it is that the same or nearly related species of animals and plants can occur on different islands, although they could not have pa.s.sed through the water separating them, and how other species living in fresh water can inhabit different enclosed water-basins, although they could not have crossed the land lying between them. These islands were formerly mountain peaks of a connected continent, and these lakes were once directly connected with one another. The former were separated by geological depressions, the latter by elevations. Now, if we further consider how often and how unequally these alternating elevations and depressions occur on the different parts of the earth, and how, in consequence of this, the boundaries of the geographical tracts of distribution of species become changed, and if we further consider in what exceedingly various ways the active and pa.s.sive migrations of organisms must have been influenced by them, then we shall be in a position to completely understand the great variety of the picture which is at present offered to us by the distribution of animal and vegetable species.
There is yet another important circ.u.mstance to be mentioned here, which is likewise of great importance for a complete explanation of this varied geographical picture, and which throws light upon many very obscure facts, which, without its help, we should not be able to comprehend. I mean the gradual _change of climate_ which has taken place during the long course of the organic history of the earth. As we saw in our last chapter, at the beginning of organic life on the earth a much higher and more equal temperature must have generally prevailed than at present. The differences of zones, which in our time are so very striking, did not exist at all in those times. It is probable that for many millions of years but one climate prevailed over the whole earth, which very closely resembled, or even surpa.s.sed, the hottest tropical climate of the present day. The highest north which man has yet reached was then covered with palms and other tropical plants, the fossil remains of which are still found there. The temperature of this climate at a later period gradually decreased; but still the poles remained so warm that the whole surface of the earth could be inhabited by organisms. It was only at a comparatively very recent period of the earth's history, namely, at the beginning of the tertiary period, that there occurred, as it seems, the first perceptible cooling of the earth's crust at the poles, and through this the first differentiation or separation of the different zones of temperature or climatic zones.
But the slow and gradual decrease of temperature continued to extend more and more within the tertiary period, until at last, at both poles of the earth, the first permanent ice caps were formed.
I need scarcely point out in detail how very much this change of climate must have affected the geographical distribution of organisms, and the origin of numerous new species. The animal and vegetable species, which, down to the tertiary period, had found an agreeable tropical climate all over the earth, even as far as the poles, were now forced either to adapt themselves to the intruding cold, or to flee from it. Those species which adapted and accustomed themselves to the decreasing temperature became new species simply by this very acclimatization, under the influence of natural selection. The other species, which fled from the cold, had to emigrate and seek a milder climate in lower lat.i.tudes. The tracts of distribution which had hitherto existed must by this have been vastly changed.
However, during the last great period of the earth's history, during the quaternary period (or diluvial period) succeeding the tertiary one, the decrease of the heat of the earth from the poles did not by any means remain stationary. The temperature fell lower and lower, nay, even far below the present degree. Northern and Central Asia, Europe, and North America from the north pole, were covered to a great extent by a connected sheet of ice, which in our part of the earth seems to have reached the Alps. In a similar manner the cold also advancing from the south pole covered a large portion of the southern hemisphere, which is now free from it, with a rigid sheet of ice. Thus, between these vast lifeless ice continents there remained only a narrow zone to which the life of the organic world had to withdraw. This period, during which man, or at least the human ape, already existed, and which forms the first period of the so-called _diluvial epoch_, is now universally known as the _ice_ or _glacial period_.
The ingenious Carl Schimper is the first naturalist who clearly conceived the idea of the ice period, and proved the great extent of the former glaciation of Central Europe by the help of the so-called boulders, or erratic blocks of stone, as also by the ”glacier tables.”
Louis Aga.s.siz, stimulated by him, and considerably supported by the independent investigations of the eminent geologist Charpentier, afterwards undertook the task of carrying out the theory of the ice period. In England, the geologist Forbes distinguished himself in this matter, and also was the first to apply it to the theory of migrations and the geographical distribution of species dependent upon migration.
Aga.s.siz, however, afterwards injured the theory by his one-sided exaggeration, inasmuch as, from his partiality to Cuvier's theory of cataclysms, he endeavoured to attribute the destruction of the whole animate creation then existing, to the sudden coming on of the cold of the ice period and the ”revolution” connected with it.
It is unnecessary here to enter into detail as to the ice period itself, and into investigations about its limits, and I may omit this all the more reasonably since the whole of our recent geological literature is full of it. It will be found discussed in detail in the works of Cotta,(31) Lyell,(30) Vogt,(27) Zittel,(32) etc. Its great importance to us here is that it helps us to explain the most difficult chorological problems, as Darwin has correctly perceived.
For there can be no doubt that this glaciation of the present temperate zones must have exercised an exceedingly important influence on the geographical and topographical distribution of organisms, and that it must have entirely changed it. While the cold slowly advanced from the poles towards the equator, and covered land and sea with a connected sheet of ice, it must of course have driven the whole living world before it. Animals and plants had to migrate if they wished to escape being frozen. But as at that time the temperate and tropical zones were probably no less densely peopled with animals and plants than at present, there must have arisen a fearful struggle for life between the latter and the intruders coming from the poles. During this struggle, which certainly lasted many thousands of years, many species must have perished and many become modified and been transformed into new species.